The Quarterly Journal Of The Mythic Society

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JULY 1941

PU9USHEO Bt TH£ WTTH'C SOC'ft

HC 0»L» Ml-OOtAL MALL* CCWir- »0»D 0«*>C*lOKI C.=V

Vol. XXXII

Mo. 1 . \

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(Qimrtnin Journal

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JULY 1941

PUOLtSNKD BY THR MYTHIC SOCIETY

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COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1941-42

PATRON

His Highness the Maharaja of Mysore.

Honorary Proiidenis

The Hon’ble Mr. H. V. Cobb, c.s.i., c.i.e., c.b.f..

The Hon’ble Sir W. P. Barton, k.c.s.i., c.i.e.

The Hon’ble Lt.-Col. C. T. C. Plowdex. c.i.e.

The Hon'blb Lt.-Col. J. H. Gordon, c.s.i., c.i.f.., o.b.e.. m.c.

Honorary Vico-Prevdenti

Rajamantradhukina
Sir A. R. Banekji, hi., c.s.i., c.i.e.

F. J. Richards, Esq., m.a.. m.r.a.s.
Rajasevasakt* Diwan Bahadur
Dr. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, m.a., ph.o., m.r.a.s.
Sir R. p. Paranjpyr, m.a. (Cantab.). B.Sc. (Bom.J, D.sc. (Cal.)
Rajasabhabhushana
Sir C. V. Raman, kc., d.sc.. f.r.s.. n.l.

PRESIDENT

Rajakaryapravina

N. S. SUBBA Rao. M.a. (Cantab.), Bar at Law

Vica-Prawdantt

Amin-ul-Mulk Sir Mirza M. Ismail, K-C.i.b.. o.b.b., c.st.j.
RajamantkaPRavina N. Madhava Rau. B.A., B.L.
Rajadharmaprav'ina Diwan Bahadur
K. S. Chandrasekhara Aiyar, b.a.. b.l.
Rajamantrapravina Diwan Bahadur
P. Raghavbndra Rao. b.a., b.l.
Rajasabhabhushana

Diwan Bahadur K. R. Srinivasiencar, m.a.
Rajasabhabhushana K. Chandy, b.a.

Dr. E. P. Metcalfe, d.sc., P.inst.p.

Sir D'Arcy Reilly

Arthasastravisarada Mahamahopadiiyaya
Vidyalankara Pandjtaraja
Dr. R. Shama Sastry, b.a., Ph.D.
Rajamantrapravina S. P. Rajagopalaciiari, b.a., b.l.
Gen«ral Sacratary and Treaiurer
S. SRIKANTAYA, B.A., B.L.

Editort

S. SRIKANTAYA, B.A., B.L.

K. DEVANATHACH ARIAS, M.A.

Branch Sacretariei

Ethnology— Rajachakitavisarada Rao Bahadur
C. Hayavadana Rao, b.a., b.l
History— Rf.v. Father C. Browne, m.a.
Folklore— B. Puttaiya, b.a.

COMMITTEE

The above ex officio aod Meter*

E. G. MCALPINK. M.A., Dip Edn.a V.D., J.P.
Rajasevasakta Pkoi-. A. R. Madia, b.a., Bar-at-Law.

Dr. M. H. Krishna, m.a., D.Litt.
Rajasevasakta Prof. B. M. Srikantia, m.a., b.l.

Dr. E. S. Kkishnaswami Aiyar, b.a., m.b. & c.vi,

J. R. Isaac, b.a., m.u.e.

Rajasevapkasakta A. N. Raghavachar, m.a.

Dr. K. N. V. Sastri, m.a., pIrD., P.R.Hist.s.

Catt. Rao Sahib A. Tangavplu Mudaliar.

V. T. TtRUNARAYANA IYENGAR, M.A.

Curator

R. Haki Rao,

CONTENTS

Haitian : Aa Aadeal Indian Cily

By Dr. Bimala Churn Law. m.a., b.l., ph.n.,

D.Lilt. F.R.G.S., I’.K.A.S.H.

Prato-Indie R.lipon

By S. 8r!kantiia s>astri, m.a.

Tk SwrtMirtdins and the MahfUangkilai in the KbsO&i Pariod

By Baij Nath Puki

Tfca Uf-od of Prahlsd*

By Dr. Mohan Singh, ph.D., o.uit.

Ramimndu The True Author of The Bhssyaratnaprahks,

By Madhava Krishna sakma, m.o.l.

Kumar a Rama

By H Srppnivasa Jois

Slndm in Plant Mylks. New Soriw. No. IV.

On ihe Ancient Greek Myth about the Metamor-
phosis ol Daplmc mlo ihe Laurel Tree.

By thk i.vril Sarat Chandra Mitra, m.a.. b.i_

Reviews :

Admm«.tr»ii«. and Social Lile Under V.jayanagata ; Source*
ol the H.-tnrv ol Hie Nawwabt ol the Carnatic II—
Bnrhan's Tiirak-I-Walajahi . ShuJlia-ud-Daulah. Vol 1: A
Collet;.' Teu-buok of Indian Hi.tory. VoU. I A II ; Ancient
India Vol III . H'.tory ol Madras; Ananda Kanga Pillai ;
The Fatly HiMory of Ceylon . A History ci Tirupati. Vol. 1 ;
Historv ol the Dumb Residency in Burro* ; Siudie* in the
Hi5ior> ufthe Bengal Subah. Vol I. Social and Economic.
740*70; A M.mml of the Pudokkotui State Volume II.
I*ari l ; »*r«* Buddhist India; Guide to Archeological

Galleries ar*l llloMratioo* of Indian Sculpture, Mostly
Southern . Archiological Remains and Escalations at Sam*
blur During Samva: 1933 and 1934 (1936-38 A D .) ; Annual
Report ol the Archaeological DcpiifrocQt tiaroda State lot
the >e*i coding with JUi July 19JA . The Progress of
Archaeology an India during ihr pAti Twenty-Five Year*;
The State Mj- jro. Pudukkottai . A Krp^rt on tl*« Working
of the Sum Mumn. PudukkotUi. for Faali 1349. Punch
Marked Coin* from Taxila; A Hoard of Silver Punch
Marked Corns from Pornea ; Annual Reports on South
Indian Epigraphy for the year* ending with Jlst March
10J£ and 31st March 1937 ; Proceeding* of the Ninth AU-
India Conference. Trivandrum. December 1937; Bhagalpur
Report . Eclipse Cult in the Vedas. Bible and Koran ;
Xamuvabii . file Number of Rasas ; Mother and Mother's
Thousaud Names — Mai and Mai Sahanranama. Vol. 1.
Part. 1*2. Economic Development. Vol. II ; The Sociology ol
Races. Culture, and Human Progress; Problems m Politic* ;
South lndi.il Celebrities. Vol. II ; Rethinking Christianity
in iDdia . -Knunraicum Tamuam ; and Karmayogarau.

PAGES

I- 7
8-37
38—45
46-54
55—57
58—64

65-68

69-106

(SJuartErln Journal

of tbf

iHijtljic ^flrirtn

Vol. XXXII] JULY 1941 [No. 1

MATHURA. AN ANCIENT INDIAN CITY

BY

*

Or. Bimnla Chuun Law, m.a., B.L., rh.D., d. i.itt. f F.R.C.S.,

F R.A.S.B.

Tub city of Mathura (Pah : Madhuri)* was the capital of Stirasena.
situated on the Juinna, at present included in the Agta Division
of the United Piovince*. The city was on the Upper Juinna
about 270 miles in a straight line noith-west of Kausambt*. The
Jainas call it by the name of Sauripura or Sauryapura 3 . It was
also called Madhupuri (present Mahoii, five miles to the south-west
of the modern city). Madhupuri, which was once the abode of
Madhu, father of Lava{Ut, is said to have been founded by
Satrughna 4 .

The city is important as the birth-place of Kpsna. It was
here that Kprna killed Kamsa, the tyrant king of Mathura. This
city was known to the ancient Greeks as one of the most flourishing
towns. Arrian knew it as the capital of the Surascnas. Ptolemy
mentions it as a city surrounded by high mounds 5 .

i. The difference is doe «o a mere linguistic peculiarity. (ItSioayaiu.

Uiurft. Ch. 105. UoroUt Recension).

2 Cambridge History of loth*. 1. p. 326.

3. S. B. E. Xl.V. p. 112.

4. Visnupurln*. {Fourth Ami*. Ch. 4J.

3. Cunningham. Ancient Geography oi India, p. 374.

2 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

The city was prosperous, peaceful and populous and the
metropolis of long SubSbu of the race of valiant Kamsa. Alms
were easily obtainable •. Fa-Hian who visited India in the
fifth century A.D. came to the country of Ma-taou-lo (Mathura).
He saw this country inhabited by many people who were happy:
Those who cultivated the royal-land had to pay a portion of
the gain to the state. The k:ng governed the country without
resorting to corporal punishment. Criminals were simply fined lightly
or heavily according to the circumstances of each case. The
king’s body guards and attendants were all paid. Throyighout
the whole country the people did not kill any living creature,
nor drink any intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic. The
cannulas who used to inhabit this country were fishermen and
hunters and used to sell flesh-meat. In the markets there were no
butchers’ shops and no shops for selling liquors**

Hiuen Tsang who visited India in the seventh centuiy A./).
came to this country. According to bis Travels, the country
of Mathura was above 5,000 If in circuit, while its capital was
above twenty U in circuit. The soil was very fertile and agriculture
was the chief occupation of the people. Mango trees were grown
in orchards attached to the homestead* of the people. The country
produced a fine-striped cotton cloth and gold. Its climate was
hot. The manners and customs of the people were good. The
people believed in the Law of Karina. There were Buddhist
monasteries, deva-templcs and the followers of the different
non-Buddhist sects lived pell-mell. He also saw al MathuiS three
topes built by AsOka and the topes tor the relics ot Sariputra,
Maudgalyayana, Parflamnitriyaniputra, UpfUi, Ananda and RShula.
He visited Upagupta’s monastery at Mathurft, which was just
one of the many Buddhist establishments ol the place. It enclosed
a tope with a finger-nail relic of the Buddha. He saw a
dried-up pond and not far from that pond there was a large wood
in which there were footsteps of the Four Past Buddhas. He
also saw the Nataba(avihSra and Urumapda hill. The pilgrim
seems to have made a hurried journey across a portion of the city of

6. Lefmann, Lalitmvistira. pp. 21-22.

7. Legge. Fa-Hieo'i Travels, pp *2-43

HATHURl: AS ANCIENT INDIAN CITY 3

Matbur* He does not mention the great river which flowed past
the east **de of the city. *

Among the discoveries made at the village of Mil, situated
about nine miles north of the city of Mathurfcon the (eft bank of the
fiver Jumna, the following are noteworthy : —

(1) A hfe size statue of king Kaniska which is about S ft.
4 in. high including the base. The head and both
the arms of the 9tatue ate lost.

(2J A tank where the Kus*n king Katnska discharged his novel
task towards Varuna, the god of waters.

(3) Several Nftga images.

(4) A mound marking the site of a Buddhist sanctuary near

the Village ol Jaisiughapura situated three miles from
Mathura towards \f ndSvana.

(if A targe mosque of red sand-stone built by the Emperor
Aurang/.eb on the ruins of the grant temple of Kesava-
deva situated at K&ui forming part of the modern
City ol MathurA.

(6) A Buddhist stupa.

A careful study of the Mathuri school of sculpture lead-, us to
the conclusion that the flourishing period u l the <iandii.ua school
must have prec«led the reign ol Kaiu*k.>. In the course ol excava-
tions, many sculptural fragments came to light, mostly of a later
date. Among the earlier finds may be mentioned a broken
four-fold Jain image w.th a fragmentary inscription in Brahmi
of the Kus4n period*.

There was an influx at Mathurft of the semi Hellenistic art
too weak in its environment to maintain it- own individuality,
yet still strong enough to interrupt and enervate the older traditions
of Hindusthan. Tiiece was a close relation between Mathura
and the North-west and as an illustration of ihat the votive tablet
of Lopaaobbika is very much significant, the stoi» depicted on
itbeing identical m form with the stupas ol the Scytho-Partlnan
*• Waiters, On Yuna Cbwang. Vo). I. pp. J01-J1J.

9. Explorations at Mathurft by J. Pt.. Vogel A.S.I Annual Report , 1911-12,

pp taojj.

4 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

epoch at Taxila 10 . The sculptural remains found at Mathura
clearly indicate the presence of Graeco- Bactrian influence. 11 The
most valuable Saka-satrap monument at Mathurft discovered and
first published by Bhagw&nlftl Indraji is in the form of a large
lion carved in hard red sand-stone and intended to be the capital
of a pillar. Its workmanship shows Persian influence. The
surface is completely covered with inscriptions in Kharc${l
characters which give the genealogy of the Satraps ruling at
Mathurft and according to these inscriptions the satrap* of Mathurft
were Buddhists. 11 It is interesting to note that the Pre-Kusftn
sculptures of the Mathura school are very instructive as they all
emanate from one and the same school and those sculptures divide
themselves into three main classes : the earliest belonging approxi-
mately to the middle of the second century B.C., the second to
the following century, and the last associated with the rule of the
local Satraps. Their style is like that of the early schcol in
a late and decadent phase when its art was becoming lifeless 11 .

Mathurft was, further, a great religious centre. Jainism was
practised with great devotiou thete 14 . Under the Kusftns, Mathuifi
was an important religious centre of the Jains**. The Jains seem to
have been firmly established in the city from the middle of the
second century B.C . Many dedicatory inscriptions prove that
the Jains were a flourishing community at Mathurft in the reign
of Kanir.ka, Huviska and Vftsudeva 1 * Buddhism gained ground
in Mathurft in the very life-time of the Buddha through the efforts
and active preaching of Mahakaccayana who was one of the most
distinguished apostles of the Buddhist faith. King Avantiputta of
Mathurft is said to have been converted to Buddhism by Mihft*
kaccayana by his famous discourse on the caste -system sometime
after tbe Buddha’s demise 17 . The csty where Buddhism was a

10. Cambridge History ol India. I. p. 633.

11. Eliot. Hiodtiiftfii sod Buddhism. 11. p. 158.

12. Kapton, Aacicat tadia. pp. 142-3.

13. Low. A norm Mid-Indian K«atri)a Tribe*. 1, p. 93.

14. Smith. Early Hiuory ol lad*, p 301.

13. Rapeon, Aocioet India, p. 174.

16. KUoc. Hinduism and Buddhas. I. p. 113.

17. Majjhlma. 11. pp. 83 ff.

MATHUR2: AN ANCIENT INDIAN CITY

5

predominant faith for several centuries wa* a stronghold of
Sarv&sti v&da along with Sftrnfith and drAvasti in the Ku§&n age.
It was a centre of Kfffi worship as early as the time of Meg&>-
thenes (3C0 Vaisnavism and Bhftgavati&m found their

place in this city. In the £aka*Ku$an period it had ceased
to be the stronghold of Bhagavatism. 1 * Vflsudcva was a scioo of the
royal family of Mathurl* 9 . The paucity of the BhAgavata inscrip-
tions at MathurA probably indicated that Bh&gavatism did not find
much favour at the royal court, because from the first century B.C.
to the third century A.D. the people were usually Buddhists and
were with a few exceptions nnt well disposed towards the religion
of V&MtctavA **• In modern times, it is one of the sacred cities and
its sanctity is very great. Buddha's influence in this city was
felt to a certain extent. He was offered aims by a woman of
Uttara-MadhuiA* 7 . Buddha frequented this locality and while
proceeding from MathurA to Ycranji, he was worshipped by many
householders MathurA which is an important centre of both art
aod cult has given a tangible proof of the existence of KAga
worship in the form of a stone-slab, now in the Lucknow Museum,
which bears an msc option in Brfihmi characters of the Ku§5n period.
The cult of the Xtgas flourished at Mathuta side by side with
Buddhism and Jam ism during the Kus&n preied 74 . The existence of
serpent worship at Mathura is also supported by the MathurA Nfiga
statuette inscription which is important in view of the story of
Kaliyanagu and suppression by Krspa recorded in the Purapas.

The Jain* Avfigapa^as found at Mathura cannot but be
supposed to have a direct or indirect bearing on the later
18 Cambridge History o! India, p. 167.

19. Ray Ctsaiulhury. Early History of the Vfusn&v* Sect. p. 99. But

a Ur&him inscription edited by Dr. I. utters (E.I. Vd. XXIV. p 19fl
distinctly recoidi the installation of the linages of Fafteaviraia, the five
Hhigivaia de«nes headed by HaJadeva. during the reign of Sod*ta. son
oi ihe !>aka Kyuu.p* K.juvuU.

20. Uttara Madhuri according to Cluu Jataka.

21. Marly History o i the Vadasri Scci. p. 100.

22. Vimnoavattbu Commentary, pp. US- 19.

23. Abgotuia Nikftya. II. p. 37.

2*. Niga wunhip .n lucent Uaihara Uy J. i'll Vo<.l A. S. I Annual
hepoci. 1908— C9 pp. 159-16'.

6 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Vi?ppatas met with in Bengal and other places. The Bacchanalian
scenes beneath an AsOka tree freely sculptured in a stone supporting
a bowl are still awaiting an explanation for their association with
the Buddhist objects of worship 15 .

The importance of Mathura in the political history of India
is to some extent great. Twenty-three SOrasena kings of Mathura
are mentioned in the Vfiyu Purflpa as contemporaries of the future
kings of Magadha. 16 The SOrasena king of Mathurfi in Buddha's
time was called Avantiputta and was therefore almost certainly
the son of a princess of Avanti a . Mathurfi. the home of the
Vrsnis and Andhakac, was later evacuated by them. 1 * Yadhifthira
installed Vajranlva on the throne of Mathura 1 * Sons and
grandsons of king Sidhina ruled Mathurfi.*

A local dynasty of kings or feudatory chiefs appears to have
exercised sway over Mathuri in tlie time of the early Sunga-Mitra
kings of Magadha. King Dhanabhfiti I, of this dynasty, son
of Agaraju (Ahgaradyut) and grandson of king Vievadeva, erected
the ornamental gateways at Bharhut in Circa 100 H.C. in the
dominions of the Supgas” while king Dhanabhati II. evidently
one of the successors of Dhanabhfiti I, erected a Torapa vedikS
at a Buddhist stfipa at Mathuia*

Mathuri and PaHcila continued to be included even in the
dominions of the later Milra kings whose coins (dubbed by
Cunningham as " I’aHcila Series") were discovered at these
places as also at KumrahSr (Pitalipu«ra) M . Among the later
Mura kings, Jndrftgnimitra. Brahmamitra and Brhaspatimitra are
" definitely associated with Magadha in addition to other territories"

2J. Vxv.rlevx s. Agrawala. N«w Scnlpiurer from Mathura, Journal of iba
United Province! Historical Society. Vol. Xt. Pt It p 67.

26. Chip. 09.

27. Cambridfn Historv of India. I. p. !S5

28 Brihraa PurSna. Chap. H. SI. 34,. Hiri.imj*. Chip. )7
29. Bhigavata Mlhilmya. Chip. I.

JO. Oldenberg. Dipavrpja. p. 27,

JI. Barn* A Sinha. Barhnt Inscriptions, No*. 1-5 : Baiun, llartmt. Bk. I. p. 29.

32. CoBningbim. Stnpi of I'barhot.

33. Cunningham. Coin*, pp. 81-88 . Alisa, Catalogue pp. CXtX-CXX .

Marshall. Arehaolcgical Survey. Pepor! for 1907 - 08 . p. «0; Bloch.
A.S-R. 1 90S 09. p. 147.

MATHURA AX ANCIENT INDIAN CITY

7

and the rest, Bfhatsvatimiira, Dharraamitra, VifQumitra, Varupa-
mitra and Gomitra. are connected with Kaui&mbl and Mathurf^ 4 .
The Hatigumpha inscription of Khilravela records the fact of
submission of Brahmamitra, the then icing of Magadha, to Khara-
vela, the king -overlord of Kalinga, as well a 9 the hurried retreat
of a Greek king (YavanarajnJ whose name is read Dimita
(Demetnos) by Sten Konow and Jnyiswal.®

Menander*. king of Kabul and the Punjab, conquered
Mathuri 20 . Matbuiu was governed by native princes whose
names can be found on coins »n the second century B.C. The
Hindu King'* Mathura were finally replaced by Hag&na,
Hagimisa Kajuvula aud other Saka Satraps who probably
flourished m 01 about thr hrst century A.D. * This is corroborated
by the eptgt .tplin evidence which is confirmed and amplified by
the numismatic evidence.

After the Saka K$atrapas, the early Kusan kings, Kaniska I,
Vixiska, Huviska, Kapi§ka II, and V&sudeva I, effectively
exercised their suzerainty over Mathurfi for over a century A
splendid Buddhist monastery bearing the name of Huviska was
built at Mathurfi in the second century A.D . 40 The great Kusans in
Mathuri were succeeded by the Nag a kings who, according to
the Pampas* established themselves at Mathura aj;*at other places.
The Naga rule continued right up to the time of Sarr.udragupta
whose all-India conquest gave a death blow to the independence
of the Nfigas.

34. Bar ue, Cftya *ixl BiddhagayS Bk. I. p. 176. Political History
Fourth Ed. pp. 334-335
35 1£ I. Vel. XX.

36. Many coint ol M«m«r*J«r »»r* ducovemJ •« Maihur* |R. D. Rancrjee.
Friiclnn Mndra. p. 50). At the close of the third century the cast com*
"•re i-.oed by the kingdom o! Mathuri, some cl wblch beat the names
"* lueal king* >n lliihm. Knpi (Coin, ot India. Brown. p. 19). la Ihe
niiBKi Mathura many ancient copper coins along with tbs coins ol
i . funk .-.ad Saka rulers were discovered (PrSchln Mudri. p. 105).

31 Smith, I'arly History d India, p. t’>9.

M - Small, fcarly History of India. P 127 .

W Ibid 1‘Oanb odn. p. 271 : Ka> Cliaudbari. Op. ciL p. 188.

•0. I Inti p 271.

PROTO-INDIC RELIGION

By S. Srikantha Sastri, m.a.

• •

It is proposed to examine the nature and affinities of the Proto-
Indiao religion here, in the light of the seals, figurines and pottery
discovered in the Indus Valley. Many of the seals can now
definitely be taken to be amulets, since in the lowest levels at
H amp pa, miniature seals with legends have been discovered and they
show that the seals were neither commercial receipts, historical
documents, nor merely heraldic. The figurines also cannot be
dismissed as toys, since Mackay thinks that the majority of them
were used for worship *. The funerary pottery, as Mr. M. S. Vats
has suggested * is decorated with scenes probably indicating the
conception of the Indus people about a life after death. Hence our
assumptions, that the seals were used as amulets, that the figurines
were used as votive offerings and that the funerary pottery was used
as throwing sorpe light on the eschatology of the times, may not be
far from truth.

Following the analytical method of Frankfort 3 we can roughly
classify the seals as {<?) decorative (6) representing action and (c)
symbolical. It is not claimed that this division is exclusive and
exhaustive, but it will be of use in making an objective approach to
the problem, and where parallels are indicated, they are to be taken
as tentative.

To the " decorative*' class may be assigned ; —

(a) Geometrical designs — the Maltese cross, svastika, inter-
twioed-snake patterns, heart-shaped and kidney-shaped
designs, mat and basket patterns, intersecting circles,
bouse, ship, animal’pens, etc.

1. Mackay. Further Bxcavatums at M*h*ttjo-Daro

2. M. S. Vat*. Excavations at Harafipa.

Frankfort. CyUndar Seals.

PROTO-IN DIC RELIGION

9

(6) Deities — Lord of herds goats or antelopes facing each
other, nude figures, processions hunting scenes, compo-
site monsters, fighting animal* ; three-faced deity with
horns, surrounded by animals ; antelope heads springing
from Pipal tree; multiple-headed animals.

M Religious action " is depicted as human beings worshipping
a deity in centre; epiphany of a tree-deity; a goddess in a tree
facing a tiger; a deity with horned head-dress and mask (?) ol
a bull or buffalo attacking a tiger ; a deity with llnwer head-dress
subduing two tigers; tiger trampling on a man ; feeding elephants,
buffaloes, tigers, oxen, rhinoceros cl* ; figurines of pregnant
women, women iying o i a couch, women with children and
hands, in front ol the mouth; males kneeling or with stretched
legs, hands lifted in ad'tfation ; female* with steuddiess supporting
lamps or dishes : man bunging a duck, or leading a goat oi bull
towards a deity in a tree.

Seiulai and " symbolical mold* ku* ’* user ononti cal “

seals with symbols ut the zodiac; hotoscopcs <?,», the serpent,
dove, fish, ram, bull, elephant, cal, monkey, pm tot, |>eacook.
duck, buffalo, lion, tiger, jugate heads, falcon with snakes,
toy -carts, Ireads. etc. used an amulets; the mlc -object beton
the bull; portrait -figurine* of the priests; mule and clothed,
dancing gcxl ami uautch girls, “Sumerian* ,iit.ul . ; on tuiieiafy
pottery, peacocks, fish, suu, eye. reeds, hulls, fishermen, crabs,
tortoises, plants, lotuses, water • symbols ; ytitu, chess men,

homo signs, gods, |x>tlcry -shapes, perforated pottety, symbols
of divinity like horns crown nf plants, ornaments: cow and • u!f
or goat and kid ; animal tile.

II

In Mesopotamia, the denies arc always m human form. In
the Indus culture however there arc not more than a dozen
divinities represented as human or semi-human beings. The crowned
horn first appears in Sumer in the Jemdet Nasr period and not
earlier, but in India horns are found from the earliest period.
The Mother Goddess is represented only by her symbol in the
Uruk period of Sumer, whereas in India figurines as well as the

10 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

mother -goddess symbol 'the ydni) occur together. Again, the
worship of animal*, is alien to Mesopotamia. The sacred herd
motif ol Urulc and ] crude t Nasr periods is not found in the
Indus seals in the same way showing that from the earliest traces
of the Indus civilisation, it was predominantly an urban and
not a pastoral civilisation. Moreover, though female figurines
are found in such large numbers, they may be taken as votive
offerings. Kather we may conclude that the Great God, the lord
of beasts was the supreme deity and hence the worship of the
Mother Goddess need not be taken as the predominant character-
istic ol the religion. It would be more natural to expect the
cow rather thao the bull figuring prominently, as in Sumer.
Hence the woi*hip of the Mother Goddess is no argument for
asserting that the religion is non-Xryan: and female deities are also
found in the Vedic religion. 4

Since most of the seal* are amulets, we can assume that the
symbols and figures have some reference to the various purposes
to which they were applied. The most natural approach to the
problem is therefore from the Atharva V«da. I think that the
usual views about this Veda as far later in date than the other
three or that it is the product of a different type of civilisation
cannot be supported. The division of the Vddas is merely from the
utilitarian and pragmatic point of view. Further the Atharva
V5da embodies very old traditions and formula*. Again we cannot
ignore the basic fact that most of the Sflktas are attributed to the
same seers as in the other three Vedas. Whatever doubts may be
roused as to the authorship of the hymns. Indian tradition has

4. $*.1-5-22.

w* qiftftrwj I «?r ii

sn^TI W r?lW Iftat •TRrflH I II

srW sjq# I II

I sraraf Gflrfaa II

sfwta? pi fafafiraiq I ftw II

fmal fwi 'ftfaft: l II

PROTO-IN UlC RELIGION

11

consistently held that the Rsis who future in the Atharva are tlie
same as in the other three. As for the argument that the meanings
of the seals are no longer self-evident and it is unsafe to be guided
by later texts (granting that these texts are laterl, »c should note
that the ritual rather than the literaty texts can be good guides.
The ritual texts and their commentaries are accepted by Frankfort
as possible clues to the seals, because they preserve the old
tradition.'.

If we disabuse our minds of all imaginary reconstruction of
VWic civilisation attempted hy many scholars, we shall be able to
make a nearer approach to the solution by analysing the seals and
paintings on the funerary pottery and drawing parallels if not
coincidences with the elements of the Atharvan civilisation.

(I) The Sun-god. In the Indus civilisation, the sun god
does not seem to have been represented in a human form. A deity
under a bough with a head-dress of plants is moie a vegetation
deity. At the same time the Indus people could not have been
uninterested in the solar phenomenon. Possibly the svastika, a
circle with radiating lines, and the eye wete the symbols employed.
We find also the falcon. The eye, it is well-known, is connected
with the sun the all seer and giver of sight, to whom at the moment
of death the sense of sight goes back. The falcon is the suu-bird,
evolved from the sun's disc (Supa'*6 GarulmHu). Much has been
written about the origin of the svastika* and one of the explanations
is that it represents the movements of the sun. Whereas in Sumer
the sun-god— the prototype of Shamash and Marduk —is represented
as seated in a boat, with a saw to cut decisions, with a
plough, a quadruped (a lion with a human face), and scorpion-
men guarding the mountains of sun rise and sun set, in India
we do not come across such a representation. The scor-
pion symbol in the script is no safe guide. The lion i* a symbol
of the sun because in later astrology Leo is the house of the sun.

5. ,Viru»ta(IIl-2l) Sv,iililjtninai,i *ama Therefore It— word S»»tfi si live

beginning of the imeriptinnt nnfitfnieU ** " be it well ' more appro-
priately ‘This is tndewrocuble. eternal 1 1 *. ncha«drarta<th>’yi

Tli* Svajlika is therefore the symbol of elernlly

12 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE M YTHIC SOCIETY

In the Indus civilisation however, the tiger figures more promi-
nently than the lion. The sun’s chariot drawn by seven horses is
also absent.

Another symbol of the sun is perhaps the bull as in Sumer.
The fierce aspect ol the sun is shown in the Sumerian seals as
the Bull of Heaven whose body is filled with flames and whose
onslaughts bring about a seven years' famine. The Ur seals
show bulls whose bodies end in mountains (of the sun -god) watched
by the guardians, A Susa seal has the sun-god rising between
two couchant bulls. The Bull-man and Man bull weie Inter
evolutions of the same theme. Tlie Bull- Man is not Eukidu
as assumed by previous scholars.

In the V&las, the terms Vr\.i and Mahifa are applied to
various deities. In the Athana Veda (XI 11-2-43-44) ROliiia (sun)
is addressed as the Bull arranging day and night ; the sun is
called the "earth filling bull (mahifa) compassing all." “With
his horns he pushes the demon, with his eye slays min, with
his ears hears what is best, the inviolable lord of Kinc”
(IX 4-17).

Mackay lakes the six-raved figure, one of the rays terminating
with Urus head as a sun symbol. The hook-like rays have
Cappadocian analogy. He says dial in die Indus civilisation the
people did not attach importance to the moon or stars being
associated with an agricultual people. This is n feature, according
to Sydney Smith of the religions of an agricultural population.

(2) Fertility Gods. A god under a curved structure is also
found in Sumer. In the Indus seal the god is under a bough with
leaves and on his head is a three-leaf ornament. It is possible that
the resurrection of a vegetation deity is represented but the figure
is not recumbent nor is there a goddess rousing it to life as in
Sumer. The legend of Ishtar and Tammuz seems to be inappli-
cable. " Siva" is of course a fertility god associated with vegeta-
tion as well as animals but he is essentially a forest deity and not
usually connected with agricultural operations like Krsna and
BalarSma who are associated with cows and ploughs. The god

PROTO-INDIC RELIGION

13

oq the seal may be a type of Rudra who in the Atharva Vftda is
«aki to shake down pestilence as from a bough from on high. 6

Another type seems to be the god within a vase-like structure,
to whom a man is offering a goat or bull in sacrifice. A third
representation is possibly of the deity round whom seven pig tailed
figures (perhaps the seven Mothers) are going in procession. The
three-faced deity seated on a couch, with the linga prominent,
surrounded by animals, or adored by two human beings hi whose
back there arc two serpents may be taken as a fertility- god.

This figure may be the three-headed MahS&amurti and the
antelope ($9») below the seat may indicate a form of Siva.
If it 19 Agni, the affinity with Siva is not excluded for Rudra
is a form of the sacrificial Agni. 7 The horns are common to Agni,
Vanity* and other gods. In the Atharva, it is said that five species
belong specially to Dhava and oarva — the kinc, horses, men, goats
and sheep. Virdpikf** a form of sacrificial Agni is also described
in the Mantra BrShmatya (II -4-6) as having prominent dontas
(horns or teeth or tusks) and as seated on a iayy*.

ftwratsffl 5i®nq«f jzspafc# fafaa I

swrew $**? 3 ri: flfofonfc I!

His two watchmen arc Balabhrt and BalasAt, and his other
names arc Samudra, Vigvavyacbas, Tulha, Viii\a\6da$ Bxfltra,
Prachotas, SahasrSk$a and son of Brahman. In the later
Buddhist tradition Yirdpiksa is the deity of the north-western
quarter and associated with animals.

6 *w w: q^ rrr i

5noi fog r [Atharva XII.)

7 R spilRRR SSftfaq I

’2*1 HRl rto: etc.; tfwpal *RD| Rqq

ft Rite ir

qs qjim faw.i nrai apor gwi aim: il

14 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE M YTHIC SOCIETY

In the Atbarva *, the VrAty* book described the Vrtlya as the
supreme Brahman. Chanda, Whitney, Bloomfield, Roth and others
have come to the conclusion that because in the later Dharma-
i&stras the ViStya is described as an out-sider, a man of mixed
origin and of peculiar dress and habits, he represents a civilisation
alien to the Aryans. But before endorsing such a conclusion
we should note that the deity of this book (Atharvn XV) is
adhy&tmaka ar.dnol.ts: is mentioned as the seer. Further, as
Whitney pointed out the Cojiki I'pnnifad says that the
Brahmachirin. Skambha, Pahta and Vrfttya are all forms of
Brahman. We cannot theiefore assert that Brali machaiya and
Sannyfca were alien conceptions ». The Vrfttya is specially
associated with the vatious forms of Siva. He stirred up Praj&pati
who saw in himself suvnrna which he genrrntcd. Tlutt became
One, star marked (— ° lal&nta ) ; it was Tapas, it was Satya. From
it he created Prajft He became the Great God (Mah&deva) and
iglna, the sole Vratya and tool: up Indra's bow (the rainbow) with
its blue belly and red back to destroy enemies.

He is seated on a vipathu (many paths or the rude chai>ot),
drawn by vS ha (horses or mules ?), and driven by a charioteer Yayu.
He is surrounded by foot men ( pariakanda ), harlots, Migadlms, and
fore runners. He weai* a garment, a turban, two pravarlat (round
ornaments), long hair and holds a goad {pratoda). His amulet
(mirni) is the halmafi.

The Vrfttya stood erect and therefore the gods pro\ ided him
with an Standi. It has four feet, and lengthwise and cross pieces
and cords like a cliarpoy. On it were placed an aslarnna (a coverlet),

8. Whitiwr anil Ij*nnmn Atharva VhUi I Harvard). CaUnd. Panel ta

Vi mU Hrahmana XVIt. p. H16 I, id. (See altt N«o 2 io

follow).

9. For yoga nt Rg V«da

qft qft qT% qR* 0PI^ I BWR II

(1-6-30-8)

# fafawt I a*fai n

(1-5-19-8)

PROTOINDIC RELIGION

IS

upabarhana (pillow?) upa-rayo (suptxrit) and a seal. 10 He
ascended it, surrounded by the Gods as footmen, messengers
( prahbyya) and all beings as the upasad t (waiters ?)

In the fifth paryiya which is Rudradivataka. it i S said that
bis attendants were the divine archers Bhava. Sana, Paeupati.
Ugra, Rudra, Mahlddva and U*na. A knowledge of this will protect
a man and hi* cattle from the attack* of tigers and other wild
animals. ( The Ainibraintthiba add * — hiunsti xyaghradishtnvtt
gantavjnh\

The Vrktya must be honoured by the king and the Btftiimana
house holder. This indicates that he was p.irivri}ith<) anti there-
fore superior even to the grluiUlni Rril'inan t. That there were
imposter* wlvo called themselves monks is indicated in VI-13-6.
These, bearing a Brahman* name only, were perhaps of non-
Brahmann origin who assumed monkish dress.

Vraty-t is Connected with V’nif.r and Vrata, the first indicating
the observation of penance and ritual and the second In- mg uf an
institutional character. It is >aid (Ailtinva VIII ami IX
Paryayas of Book \\ ), that he moved towards the Visa and
was followed by the assembly, gathering, army, strong drink and
Kinsmen.

Some of these characteristics an- found in the three-faced
deity on the seal*. He is seated on an autttdi whose legs seem
to terminate as hull legs, jwrhaps to indicate motion. He wears
an elaborate turlian(?) (ushtfa) and horn* The word h slmifa
i* perhaps connected « itli uksh.r (a hull). The pendant on his
chest is perhaps the amulet balru.rti and the iouiuI ornament*

10 See alio diedetccipiKin o( tlie royal throne with threads (Ai. Hr. Vltl-12).
The .i>unJI i. also mentioned a* i Lind of throne in the bridal liymn
(XI V-2-65) aud in the Atlartyn Brahma*,, (Vlll-J-O-I a. NVDitney
cnajcciurcd it to be a tounging elinir or bed. Ii ha! a riMhion { upa ■
Jtiina) and - paxtsana (coverlet), Digl.a Nikayu (11-23) with
BiuldliaghSrha * coarnieiilary. says it war a^ed 10 carry corpser as a
bi« by tour bearers lUla roent.on. S'anJi a-i a *Aaftsi or
fmryanhrta (col or palaampnn) The Ranch* Vimij (V-J-I) lias isand,
equal to Ulpa of Tai. Hr fl-d-6-5.)

16 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

pravartax u . The prominent membrum virile perhaps indicates
the text " he stirred up Proj&pati The animals around the figure —

the elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buffalo and deer arc wild animals.
Probably, apart from the deer which is perhaps the vehicle, the
purpose of the seal is to invoke the protection of the Viitya as
fiarva, Bhava, and Isdna on the road (of the bride on her journey to
her husband’s house) or on the path to heaven ( Atharva XV-5).

The deity, though not so probably, may be Tvftebtfa Trisiras
Viwarlpa as the 41 fashioner His three heads were struck off,
one became the haze l -cock (kapinjala), another the sparrow
{kalavinka), the third the partridge ( tittiri ).

fore I l

*i«i cftfai | flVnR II

Tail. Sum. 11-5-1.)

Agni is also called three-faced but hi* vehicle is Avi (ram) or
Aja (goat) and not an antelope- He is also two-headed aud with
four horns (chnlvari Srmgd...dvi tirshi).

Phallic emblems .— The hnga and the ring-stones are supposed
to be fertility emblems. The pedestals with trefoil pattern on
them are taken by Maekay to be the base of the Hnga. Two large
cones at Mohenjo Daro are taken to be lingas. M. S. Vats reports
that at Harappa in Stratum III (6' *5') si* lingas with shell orna-
ments, a unicorn seal, five stone pestles, stone palette, and a block
of clialcedony were found in a jar. The biggest specimen,
17.5 inches tail and 9 inches in diameter was found in the highest
levels. Another Imga sixteen inches high was found in the fourth
stratum. Many conical baetyls were found with the yOni indicated
round the body by broad bands upto two-hftbs of the linga. The

II. The Altareya BuUimaija «a»x that the ictpeat rage Arbuda Kddruviya.
introduced the tfravuilul. who praised wearing a turban and ..lh «yn
tied up The Haudhdyana Zrautu ii/ro (XVIII-I-JI mentions the
uitiqiid, pralvda and vifalha, and atao a bo- wilhoot arrow,
a black cloth with a black hem. the black turban worn itanung
and a nlver mtba ai characterislcs of the Vr»t,a. For Vipath*.
compare the sacred wagon Apema at Epham and hama^i a »»r
cborio: also used as a family wagon.

PROTO INDIC RELIGION

17

SuldhiMta S&ruvaU of TrilOchana div&cftrya prescribe*, the
pjfrftku lakfana as bhagak^ii. The ring-stones have not that
form oor the tfntukha. Moreover I do not think that any sped*
men of a linga affixed to the base has been discovered; always
separated. The top of the ling* may be in the form of a half-moon,
a tnpu$a (gourd), egg (aty/n), and umbrella (chatra). The
rikha at the top of the linga does not seem to be indicated in the
specimens but this is not obligatory for ratna % loha t b&na and chala
linga*. These specimens nearly one and a half foot high could not
have been worn on the body. The baria linga may vary in height
from a mftaa to a hast*. The pindikas are divided into three
parts of Garni, MuuOnrtiaui and Laksmi as the Sakti dovatas.
If in the Indus specimens the yOni is indicated only upto two-fifths
of the linga — this is unusual, though not improbable. As regards
the conjecture that Siina devnh refer to these Indie people, Kaj-
wade may be right in taking tiiiut to mean not the phallus or the
tail m fig. 1105*3, but as balls of flour out of which images were
made. Siinuh also means limbs or bricks [Nirnbta IV— 5.)

God of vegetation iwd oiihnals : -\\c have already refered
to several deities nut rounded by animals and seated in trees etc.
The god seated in a tree and pointing towards a feline looking back
at him can tie taken ns man caught in a forest and taking refuge in
a tree. The scenes of hunting a buffalo or bison on a llaiappa seal
may be a ritualistic ^presentation of a sacred hunt (utfgayu yiitra).
As already pointed out a resurrection of a vegetation-deity is not a
part of the Indus religion. The dcitie* with a tre-foil or sprigs of
leaves on the heads may be vegetation deities, but another
explanation will be indicated when we refer to the seals as
amulets.

The fear of wild animals »g clearly seen hi the spells of the
Atharva *oda. Of particular interest are the seals where the tiger
K depicted. The tiger is shown as trampling on a man or being fed,
or being wrestled with by a naked hero with a plumed head dress.
In the Atharva (XII- 1 *49) the Earth goddess is invoked to drive
away the wild beasts of the woodafriif j<r lions, tigers, jackals

(t#/i ?) p wolf, misfortune, rkfika \br,jr$l) and demons. The deity
may be a form of Siva who killed VyAghrftsura hut it is more likely

18 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

that the seal is an amulet. Therefore it is interesting to note that
the £si Atharvan is called the Tiger-slayer ( Vyaghra jambhatxa).

Another god with tangled arms is shown as separating (?) two
humans who have uprooted trees. Probably the stealing of some
sacred tree or herb is indicated.

To protect domestic animals from the attack of wild ones, a
stake of khadira wood is taken up and buried following the kine
with this charm (IV-3).

Up from here have stridden the three, — tiger, man and wolf ;
since hey 1 Ihintk) go to the rivers, hey ! the divine forest-tree, hey !
let the foes bow !.

Both thy eyes (<rftx<r’t) and thy mouth ( mukka or hanu)
O 1 tiger!, we grind up ; then all thy twenty claws (nakhas).

The tiger, first of creatures with teeth, do we grind up ... .

Ruined (wrfinja) be the teeth of the beast

What thou contractest (santyama) mayest thou not protract
{viyama). Mayest tl>ou protract what thou dost not contract.
Indra born, Soma born art thou, ;m Atharvan Tiger crusher. The
PaippaiSda version for the first line is qajUfft fawft JR* I

Evidently the Khadira wood was associated with the list
Atharvan and considered as efficacious against tigers. The
Paippoiada has an extra verse.

qj|| q?0| FWl *(*!)% I

<rai wire; qwi H

The flesh-eating fire is also symbolised as a tiger. “ Agni
kravyflda entered into this man, he has gone after the tlesh eating
one. Having made two tigers severally. 1 take him who is other than
propitious" (XI I -2-43). Other unlucky things like the first two
upper teeth of a baby aie conipaied to tigers. The unlucky day of
Jyfctha and Mflla naksatrar. is called the Tiger day (VI- 110-3).

Goddesses of fertility : — The seals and figurines show that the
goddess was a popular figure but there is no dear evidence that
a female deity was held to be superior to the male. No doubt the

PROTO IM)IC RRUGIOS

19

fanaJe figuring axe more numerous hut since females are more
pcoot to superstition the votive figurines are found in greater
Qmnbeis. Moreover if Sakti worship was I he main featurr, there
would at least have been more depictions of a goddess not in
n subordinate mpacity but as being adoied by men and beasts,
just as the “8iva“ figure is shown. Mack ay conjectures that
the pottery figurines are not votive offerings deliberately mutilated,
but house-bold deities which were throwo away when accidentally
mutilated. But it is difficult to accept this because the figures of
pregnant women, holding children etc. must have been thanks
offerings. Again the " dpa lakstm M type of figures could not
have been the mam objects of worship. Others have small spikes
on the top of the head dress, perhaps to support a dish of offerings.
Others again must have been the proto types of female demoos,
ilrhbeiately pierced or mutilAted and painted red to simulate blood.

ne head dresses of these figurines are of interest. 12 Thete are
few s topic usftnifa* or turban*. Some have a horned object on the
head, the two hands raised to support it. It seems to have been
made of some soft material. The fan-shaped head-dress with
pannier-like additions to it, supported by a band round the forehead,
must have been a copy of some actual head-dress for ritual. One
figurine has a conical cap with a drooping top, perhaps for a tassel,
ivuMiblitig Hiuite caps. 1 * Some females have spikes of flowers
h«*iw.*eu horns and long pig tails. The votaries arouud the tree-
C Hldess 0) have long pig tails.

I ’ ve Miidrp i«rr* colt* figurine* (of PStallputra. Buiar. Mathura, Basra).
ha»e the kaparda on the right. left or in froat f>wr^cAfi<(<T ?) for male*
Female?. have kayiArda in 2. 3 or 4 plain— no four plans as in
Aa’X-lQI. Opaia of tbc band-type, horn-typo, and *olute-typ« . kumba
and frr./, r.i — brad covering with raised piait of hair and a hand round
the head . at Buxar . the female's under shirt of wool Samutya with
npacn hU drapery . also female head-dreste* 1 ike a bandage round the
held arul crown-tike (M Ghosh VII Or. Con p.707. lianeryi Satin
PaU taka Com. Vol )

U. Foe muon c'Mm in proto-Gr nek civilisation derived from Anatolia had
a horned cap resembling an oxhead. In A*. VII-2-2J the kap&rda on
the right, characteristic of the VaaUthaa is mentioned A*. VII. 5-Si
mentions white robed TftJ.ua with braided haiT. Chalu^kaparda
(four braids) of women (Ag. X-KM14.)

20 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE M YTHIC SOCIETY

In the Atharva Veda the types of head-dresses mentioned are: —

(1) The Jirifin. To guard pregnant women against demons,
the Atharva Paddhati prescribes a talisman in the form ol a doll
made of red and yellow mustard plants, reaching from the woman’s
neck to the navel. K&ivh however prescribes an amulet of white
and yellow mustard (baji ?). Atharva (Book VI II -6-7) has this
spell.

" He who lies with [uipad) thee in sleep, having become like a
brother and father,— them eunuch formal, tura dccked (tirltin), let
the baja expel from here.”

hi the Paippaledn version it is ftinfiu. It must have been a
distinctive woman’s dress according to Whitney.

(2) Kurira, Rumba , and Opaia. In the spell to make a
man impotent, wrapping, crushing and burying his urine and fa-ces
(VI -133), ft plant is used

O herb, make this man impotent, Opaia- weating. Make
him impotent, Opaia wearing, kurira wearing, split his testicles.

Impotent I have made thee, the Kurira and the kumba we set
upon his head.

The commentator says that the Opaia is the mark of a woman
(stri vya njana) and kurira is explained as keia (hair). A
similar passage in the Taittiriya Samhita (I V-l — 5) has

In the Xivalayana Srauta SQ4ra (X-9-5) it is prescribed

<Wft fSttfa Kurira is taken as hair tresse*

(keiajala) and is perhaps connected with the Dra vidian Rural
(hair curls). It is also taken as a hair-net of sheep’s wool.
Rumba is its ornament («6/mrr»<i), a circular bamboo rim. Gcldncr
thought that Opart i, kurira and kumba alt mean “ horn ”. 14
Perhaps the horned head-dress is implied. Whitney conjectures
kumba as a head ornament distinctive of women. It is ;>erhaps

14. The bpuiit io bur# resembled the met ting, covering the tool of

a boas*. "The thousand-eyed net (a**u) Mretchtd out like un

Opa>a on the vitfivant (diviion line), tied down, put on. do u* with

prayer unfMten." (lX-3-8). JM.O.RS. XVII p. 2*.

PROTO / ND/C RELIGION

21

significant that «h<* tiritin, Qfitiia, khrira and kumba are mentioned
in connection with eunuchs and impotent men. These figurines
may have been employed in such sexual charms. In the nuptial
ceremonv of SQryft (XIV- 1 -8) kttrira and dp<t*a of the girl along
with an ornament p tut rid hi arc mentioned.

The pig-tails 15 of the goddesses and the votaries have interesting
analogies. Langdoit points nut that the figures of prisoners with
pig tail torwure at Kish are totally different from the Sumerian or
Semetic. 16 “ It follows that the Jtmcbu Kasr civilisation is the
original Sumerian civilisation and came from India, bringing
a script which they almost entirely abandoned in favour of the
one found already sn t ie laud, the so-called Sumerian picto graphic
script.*’ Braided hair is mentioned in the V&las frequently. Nijfiti
is golden haired <4/*. V-7-9J. The use nl healing plants for increas-
ing ai>d fastening the hair i~ udvuiuted (VI-21). The Sami plant
of great leaves is gracious to the hair <V 1-30). Hut in Ayurveda
tbe Liini fruit is called kilo ».••//. ini (injuring the hair). Sami
■snow identified with I’rosofits spicigfn or Mimosa sun) a ; but
these two tlo not seem to correspond to the Athaivan Sami ol
great leaves. 1 he goddess binivali has broad braids. She is called
the sister ol the gods and mistress of the people, a thousand
braided goddess, the spouse of Vishu Uih. VII-48. Itg II
32-6-7). This also applies to. Aiuimati. Dishevelled locks were
considered inauspicious as of comets, meteors and professional
waders at funerals,

Lei not the women of dishevelled locks, let not the evil wailers
wail for thee. (Alii. VIII |.|y)

In the marriage ceremony, the bride is limbed and combed
with an .utiftcial Inmdred-loothetl comb ( kankala , baufnkn, or
*nn*.i<*»). I n ( |, e figurines two coils are shown ns falling on
the shoulders or u slid plait hanging at the back. The seven
votaries wearing a sou of kilt or skirt with long pig. tails and
Sprigs of plants on theii heads me shown at the bottom. Another
P<g- tailed figure is kneeling before a pig-tailed tree-goddess (?)

15. W mom at Kish Vol. I pi 56 59

16. J. R. a.S, 1951 July, p J‘»J.

22 QUARTBRL Y JOURNAL OF THE M YTHIC SOCIETY

in a Pipal, along with a goat with human face. Mackay
suggests the resemblance to the seven twin daughters of Bau of
Sumer, Sitala and her six sisters, and to the seven mothers. In
the Atharva, the aivattha is said to be the home of the Gandharvas
and Apsaraves. For the Qlndharvi Mahulanti, the herb aja*rin&
(Odina pinna! a) is used in exorcising the Apsaras and Gandharvus.

Where the aivattha, nyagrddha, great trees with crests
[iikhatufinah ) — there go ye Apsaras. (Ath. IV- 3 7-4).

The word i$kh<m4in is taken by the commentator as peacocks.
The Gandhatvas are again called dancing, crested (iekkanHin).
Probably peacocks were also the abode of the Gandharvas and
peacock feathers were worn on the head. The aivattha and
nyagradha are the homes of the Gandharvas according to the
Taittariya Samhita flV-2-5).

II

The Parfla wood is also connected with the seven Maruts.

(r«i-SAM III 5-7).

The seven figures may be the Sapta Rs*s and the rer#*-
mortal is perhaps indicated in AtharVa 1-31, and IV- 15, where it ir-
*aid tliat PrajApati nmhaglnn should be |>er formed to bring about
ram, on the occasions of npat&rakas (meteors?) inundation* and
Hoods and the ob**tuatioti of seven seers (Saptarsi Naksatras). A
dance was perlormed calling upon TAdurl, Kha$vakli&, Kli&imakha,
Pur* and Maruts, perhaps like the dance ol the slave girls round
the Marjaliya fire, with new water pots, calling out Haitn aha 3.

R? nra=tq: *n|* 17RR7n««I

(r.rr. Sam VIIS-IO).

Inundations were lo the Indus people perhaps greater dangers
than drought. Mohenjo Daro seems to have suffered from at least
three floods. Markay says that the flood level at Kish is not

PROTO INDIC RELIGION

23

contemporaneous with the Ur flood level but is the contemporary
of the second flood at Mohenjo Daro in the late third phase, ten feet
Mow the datum. The Atharva, it should he noted, considers the
Indus as the mightiest of the rivers, though Varanftvati and Yamuna
are mentioned. It may even be that the hull is the symbol
of this river. In the marriage hymn (XI V-43) it is said “ Vfjhil
Sindbu won the supremacy of the streams. So thou be samrSjini
In thy husband’s home." The seven Itsis were somehow
connected with the floods and also comets or meteors. "The star with
dishevelled hair" bringing affliction is mentioned in the hymn to
the Brahmajayi ( V- 1 7-4) which is also used for averting the conse-
quences of the fall of meteors.

Misfortunes on the village of which they say “ this is a stai
with dishevelled hair “--as such the Brahmaj*y& burns up the
kingdom, where has gone forth a hare fsa«a) accompanied by
meteors (i<lknsi).

The falling "stars” seem to have been identified with the
seers (munis) who were the friends of the gods and witnessed
everything when falling from heaven, according to Kftjwlde.

WflfgcU II

<Re. X-136-4)

Another fertility goddess is pei haps the seated female, perhaps the
Earth goddess from whose navel a creeper is growing. 17 If Raj wade
is right, earthly gods ral!«l Otnfch are also mentioned in the ItgvMa.

fora? «fefon: i

mm ‘i’dlfll if|at»T» ^ aw awi: II

lltg. III-b-8).

Perhaps corresponding to these earth deities is Siikamlihara
or SakadliQuia. fiikadhuma is taken literally to mean dung smoke
which gives birth to a kind of demon.

17. la the seal no. !0I (Kacavation* at Harappa— M. S. V»w), iherc is no
dear indication that the lit or. • > ihul of a »onun. nor does the ob>«:
attached 10 the stomach resemble ' plant bai i* rooie like a tortoise.

24 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Of whom the from feet are behind, the heels in front, faces
in front, born of the threshing floor and dung-smoke, who are
Uruitdas (or Arundas)and Matmatas, pot-testicled AySsas— we cause
to disappear by pratibOdhct. O Brahmanaspati ! (Aik. VIII-6-15)

The Paippalfida has Sakad.huma. Again in a charm to avert
the evil effects of poitents like the lunar eclipse etc. the dung-balls
are placed on the joints ol a Brthmana who is asked " what sort
of day?" The BrShmana who is the personification of Agm
replies “ Very favourable

“When the astensms made SakadhUina their king, they
bestowed on him the auspicious day (bhadra) saying ' This shall
be his royalty'". The Paippallda version is: —

^raiwff^d I

Bloomfield » took SakadhQma to be a weather-prophet.
Whitney conjectures that the Milky Way, the king of naksttas
is probably meant, and that from the dung-smoke going up a
fore cast of the weather was made.

But it is probable that lafikn and Saka mean vegetation. The
female counterpart of the earth and vegetation god is perhaps Urn*.
S&kambhaii. A-parpft— later thenamesof Gaurl-P&rvati. InSumer
Mari etc. the Goddess with an overflowing vase or plough is
identified with the Inaima (later Isbtar), the queen of Eanna. She
has a horned head-dress and plants are shown sprouting from her
shoulders. Standing on a mountain she was perhaps the goddess
of war and seated on bricks with an overflowing vase, as on the
seal of the servant of Naram-Sin, she is also a goddess of fertility.
At Mari the goddess is entirely naked but with a turban and in
another form she holds a streaming vase with fish depicted. In
India the flowing vase motif does not occur. Nor is there the

18. Even now stories are currenl shout Bcshntapai wlm eilenilod tlw left Kind

for receiving royal gift*. When qeeilloned »» 10 ihe appropriateness
of this, ihe Biihmanis being ukitogals. put some cowdang cakes on
Iheir right bend sad -moke and flatties began tn spring up.

19. Bloomfield. Hymns from the Atharva Veda. (S.B.F..)

PROTO INDIC RELIGION

25

interceding goddess bringing the devotee before the chief God.
Evidently in domestic worship in India a priest as a mediator was
not necessary, except perhaps in witchcraft. The Indian female
ftgurines are never entirely nude except the two bronze dancing
girls.

The Virgin : — A figure of a girl with small breasts, but with it
skirt and girdles may represent the Kanv& -Human type (tfor«?).

The Waff** 1 type : — There is no figurine which can definitely be
identified with the goddess as the mother. The pregnant females
with children, and the right hand lifted to the month represent
votaries rather than the principle goddess.

The Warrior -Goddess : — The proto- Indians seem to have been
pacifist* and there are few representations of a fighting goddess.
The deities fighting with animals may have amuleti*' and medicinal
value. A human figure with feet and tail of a bull is struggling
with a horned tiger. Mac toy consider* the figure to be female.
A woman with tiger's body, but with human forelegs and two
spiral horns with n spike of flowers between them and a long pig
tail may be the count? i-part of Durgu.

Water Goddcx* : — As pointed out there is not any retwesentn-
tion of a goddess with a flowing vase, But since the public baths
and wells are so prominent and since the people depended on and
also were afraid of the inundations of the Indus, some fomi of the
water goddess must have existed. Perhaps her symbols were the
fish, the tortoise, ghanyal, niga and spouted vases. The snake
over the heads of some figures may also have represented waters.

Dragon god: — In Mesopotamia a god on a dragon oceuis.
frequently. The Hydra and Hercules theme reached Greece
through Syria and Anatolia. The Human Tisbpalc supported by
a dragon and with a fire altar before him displaced Niria/.u ax the
weather god at Eshnunna (Tell Asmar). A seal at Tell Asmar
has a god or worshipper, holding a kamattduUi-like pot, and with
a snake on his head. Behind the figure there arc intertwining snakes.
The Leviathan theme is also found in the Rn* Sbarma texts. On
*h« Kassite seals, the winged dragon with bud-like hind legs,
fail and mouth is found. The weather god A dad (>) bolding

26 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

:» Iriiila (triple lightning ?) or a whip (kaia) is standing on
a fire spitting dragon or in a chariot drawn by diagons. Schott
identifies the dragon with the constellation Ukatukha, assigned to
Nergal ol Pestilence-

Frankfort points out that the earliest symbol of the storm-god
w a-' the whip and not the thunder-bolt. The god at Baal Bek
had a whip: so also Jupiter, a form ol Had ad of Syria and Adad
of Mesoiiotamia. Futlani takes the whip to be a solar symbol.
The three-lotigued lightning came from Syr.a to Mesopotamia
in Hammurabi's time. In the time of Adad Ninth the whip was
the symbol of lightning, Probably the whip of the goat-herds
was translated. In the Iliad (1 1-782) the whip end the lightning
are mentioned as separate emblems of Jupiter. Jupiter Heliopob-
tanus has a whip in his hand. Jacob Stahl thinks that the forked
lightning symbol as the more original form of stylised fire. In any
case the three pronged lightning is of Syrian extraction and appeared
in the period of the Amarites and first Dynasty of Babylon ; until
then the whip was the only symbol. 10

The whip was perhaps a whip of snakes or scorpions. In
India the storm-gods Indra, Maruts and Rudra have the whip,
the thunder -Ix)h and the Iriiila. The honey-whip of Asvins is
mentioned.

fW 0? II ( Tail S<IHI . IV -7.)

The iriiola of the Paura$ic Sita may repesent the thunder bolt of
Rudra (ftf/f) or since Kudrn is a form of Agni, the flames of the
three sacred fires. Dragons are of course associated with Indra
and Rudra (V'rfrn, A hi and :Yagu). On the Indus seals, hooded

20 Pnuuumi- My. ihm in Greece Ztai was represented as a pyramid and
Anemia a. » column. This wm to be o reversal of Ike usual mangle
symbol to represent * guild**. and the pillar lo ■-preseiit the god.
Al UyWo. and in Mesopotamia many repreaemaiioos of a pyramid on
the back ol a bull are louod l ire pyramid originally lepreiented the
Hitlire god on a bull (Sandon) whose descendant n Zeus Doiicbeno.
In the Phrygian mysteries " the Hull la the father of the serpent and
the serpent the father of the Hull \ ttfomvoy).

PROTO INDIC RELIGION

27

**rp«nt* and ml*! twined snakes ar« found. A lozenge-shaped seal
at Harappa 1ia>* a falcon between two -makes. The encmity
between the snakes and eagles 15 also indicated in the Myth of
Etann. On a i-opper tablet of Mohenjo-Daro an animal with
horns and elephant-trunk has ;» tail ending like a snake. On the
whole, we can say that the Nig* w;is not worshipped separately.
The snake -sv in Ml had only an aniulettc purpose. No images of
snakes apart from .imuletft have been found.

The Oulu' ‘‘its the make coil and hydra occur as very early
themes in Mc^>lK>Uimia. The snake toil is found 011 a Jetndei
Near seal. The copulating vipers represent Ningiszida, The
soake coil has sometimes two heads or a head and a tad. At Fara
there is a tortoise at the snake's head. In the Boghaz-Kcut monu-
ments, the coils of Vrtra are shown. In Babylonia the worship
of animals was unknown. But at Khafaje a bull in a temple shows
Indian influence. Similarly at Khafaje and Tell Asmar (ill. L.
News : Sep. 5. 1936) pots placed on the flooi, and decorated with
snakes, tortoises and scorpions were discovered. Frankfott con
jectures that living snakes were kept and fed with buds and small
animals. A saucer for water was also placed inside the pots. If
living snakes were worshipped in the Indus Valley they may have
been kept in the so-called cages of pottery 01 in the perforated
vessels. But no remains of snakes in the pots have been discovered.
We are in doubt as to whether even the antdiill was then worshipped.

The hull or buffalo headed goddess:-- One seal at Harappa
(Vats. No. 319) has a buffalo- headed goddess al one. We have already
refered to a similar hu 11 -headed goddess the head, tad and legs of
the bovine subduing a tiger (?) with two feathery horns, besides an
acacia <?). In the seal of Lugal anda and his wile Baranamtara,
a similar goddess but wilh one curling horn and pig-tail is attacking
a lion which has seized a hull man (bearded), by the (ore-leg while
M eagle (Imdugud) is shown hovering above. I hc story ol Enkitlu
IS not applicable. In the Epic of Gilgamcsh, Etikidu is described
as covered with hair in long tresses like a woman and the garb ol
Sumukan. the lord of cattle. He hunted the lions raiding the
sheep-folds and catching jackals. He was the warden u( the sheep-
(°Ws. His name means the lord of the place of abundant recreative

28 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

force. He was at first hardly human and only after intercourse
with the netaera he became human. Gilgamesh and Enkidu
wrestled with each other and became friends. They kill an Elamite
demon and the Bull of Heaven sent by Ishtar. Enkidu dies and
Gilgamesh Roes in search of the plant of life- Utanapi9htim
narrates the story of the Flood. Gilgamesh meets Enkidu in the
under world and is told of its desolation. Even in Mesopotamia
there i9 no seal connected with the epic by an inscription. The
human headed bull lias a beard and is of the aurochs type with one
horn and girth at Fara. The bull-man may be twin and in the
Early Dynastic period he is exclusively a slayer of lions. In the
time of the Third Dynasty of Ur. lie has a horned crowo. Terra-
cotta figurines of the bearded naked hero and the Bull-man were
called Tallin (Twins or companions), to be hurried in the corners of
court yards to protect the house from evil influences. Therefore
there is no parallel with the Indian Bull-headed goddess. Mackay
suspects that the horned bull inasks found at M often jo Daro were
suspended in the houses to avert ill-luck, like the metal masks of
Ur. Kish and Susa.

Goddess with Doves horned female figurine at Mohenjo
Daro has four birds, probably doves, on the head.*' At Ha rap pa
the dove models are invariably whistle " ghuggu" of modern
Punjab. There is also the flying dove which may be amuletic.
The dove-goddess naturally invites comparison with Crete and
Mesopotamia. In the Akkadian ritual, the burning up of Quingu
and cutting up of Tiamat are indicated by cutting the throat of a
sheep and placing it in an oven and by killing a pigeon. Evidently
Tiamat or female Chaos was represented by a pigeon. In India
also the dove was considered to be a bird of ill omen, the messenger
of perdition (Nirrti). In the Itg V'Sda (X-165) and Atliarva (VI — 27,
28, 29), wc have 6pell9 against birds of ill-omen.

Seeking what, O Gods! the sent dove, the messenger of Nirrti
hath come hither, we remove.

Propitious be the sent dove and hawk ? (siiiuxuj

21. A fsonle ftfutin* in He Pelna Museum hulhtaeholeson tlir bead. peotnNy
for interring » bead-dress (?)

PHOTO INDIC RKUOIOS

i't

L«e not the dove injure us.

The Kg V6da bas:-

fj f? ?ff: «H: II

Wilh this Ik drive away the dove; revelling in lood, uc lead
the cow about breaking up the tracks, hard to go.

(A cow and hie me taken three times round the house.
X— 165-5.)

The owl uttering, tile dove making track at the tire; in
Yama’s house they may look upon thee as sapless and empty ( 3 T^)-
Atbarva VII 66 i* also a charm against black-birds (ffri»a
i ilium) of evil omen.

The PAiftvaius * were an alien people who were killed by
Saras vat i ‘He. VI -61 -2). Pirivata occurs also as the name of a king,
the enemy uf tin Ary*® (5g. V1II-10-100-6).

«HI«MI I

•rr* na nmi: WIR II

In the Brl .tdd8v*tA (X-57-59) it is said that Subandhu was
the priest of king AsmBti of the Ik?v*ku race and was discarded.
Bandhu and others of the Atn clan were displaced by Kirftta and
Akuli who became two pigeons Ikapita) and harassed the Gaupa-
yanas by their >Oga. Subandhu was however restored by the

22- Hike hr an lit idi-nlified Straba’s Paroutlai with the Panalas. The
Pirv mas of I lie Vidas were not hostile to the Aryan, whereas ihc
Parvatus -ere, Oppen connects the Brahms wilh Farata or Pa null
i>« the Poranas and with Pii&vara of the Tamil country. Faravaris la
MahiirnNtra and ihe Para he in I'alammn He also assumed that the
Brahuis or Puaut to be the same ae the Bbarataa. The Brahms
are assumed to be Dravkdiaiu. Scythians. Tatters. Arato. Iranians, etc.
according to the fancies of the scholars. They are also connected
nth the Jadgals or Jaia. Harofti is supposed to mean a hill in Persian
and therefore the Brahms were hill-men Their own traditions assert
that they cimie from Aleppo in two clans Sagdi (Sagta) of the Greehsl
and Saga fSaka). The linguistic resemblcnce to Dtavidian is perhaps
due to Late maritime contact. There seems to he no doubt as to
their foreign utigln racially.

30 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Gaup*yanas and again became (he priest o( A am fill. Therefore
the parivala aod bapdta were unlucky birds.

In Crete a the worship of the Mother goddess 14 was connected
with snakes and doves. Pendlebury thinks that living snakes
were kept in tubular vessels, bowls, handleless jugs, etc. A low
tripod table had a ring in the centre, with four grooves along the
edge for a snake-party. A pierced vessel like a honey comb with a
snake crawling on it and two small jugs with snakes on them show
the prevalence of the worship of the living snake apart from
the snakes held in the hands of the goddess. She also liolds a dove
in her palm and a man is bringing her a dove for sacrifice. Two
votaries also hold snakes. On one of the seals a snake surrounds
a cat sejant gardanl, The dove is also found on cult objects.
The suake as the enemy of the dove may represent the power of
the under-world as against the symbol of the over-world or atmos
phere. Hut the Indus figurine seems to be amuletic, possibly
representing some aspect of Niffli or Yama.

Inanimate symbols .-—Among the symbolical cult-objects the
peculiar vessel in front of the bulls and goats has attracted much
attention, l'riederichs rakes the lower portion to be a crib and
the upper a stable rack and the lines as representing folder.
Marshall thinks it is an incense-burner and the lines as flames.
If it is a fire-holder i: probably represents the ccremonv akin to
leading a cow and the fire three times around the house to break
the evil influence of ill-omened birds, Mackay points out that by
itself it is carried in procession and occurs separately on the
amulets. It is not a bird-cage, and it is also doubtful if it is
made of reeds - the lines and pellets being mere decorations. I have
observed that the object is represented with at least twenty varia-
tions. The lower vessel is sometimes plain, knobbed, with

23. PendMniry. A'cluelogy of Create.

24. The Cretan Earth goddess u now conjectured to be De-or Ge-roatir taken

over by the Greek s and called Cybebe or Cybele in Phrygia. In the
Greek pantheon Gaia or Ge had a daughter Faea (Cybele. Hecate.
Artem**) wife and sister of Cronos. Many breasted Artemi's (or Diana)
is the " Lady of the wild Creatures To Croocs aod Rhea were born
Demeter. Hera. Hades. Poseidon and Zeus.

PROTO ISO/ C RKLIGfOS

J1

n projecting bass. ornamented with wavy horizontal lines. The
upper vessel is square, rectangular, semi-circular, in three, lour, fu*
corn par tments, with a knob at the top, ornamented with riots, central
lines, zigzags etc. The bn** of the tipper vessel has a tubular form

connecting it with the lower. It is highly piohabl* dial this vc*mu
is some sort of biter for a ritual drink. The so-called flamer, may
be some sacred heibshlce the sdma. The two vessels were thus
affixed and the drink filtered through from the upper to the lower. 25
In the Atbarva (IX-4) there is an obscure hymn glorifying the bull.

A male (jXififitfi) yet pregnant, big ( sthavira ), rich in milk,
the Bull bears a trunk {Kabatuiha) of Vast* (good ?l ; him sacrificed
to Indra. let Agm carry by the God-travelled roads bitvayuna).

His KfHd (breast ?) was Jinianiamsas (the imprecation of
sisters ?); his vifxl ? (obscure) was maintained as SOma's. \\ hen
tlie gods diMributcd the Bull.

Of reddish form, ndbhasa (clouded ?) vigor giving, the
vehemance of Indra, all formed, he hath come to us, assigning to us
life and progeny; with abundances of wealth, let b*im attach himself
iou». (r.uppaiMa-qai»l«wi 'foq WTOI^jij)

Herr m this stall, O Closeness ( upapurchnna ) be thou close
unto us; unto us what seed the bull has; unto us Indra, thy
heroism.

id. Hr. IV-28-8; Tai. Br. II-8.fi. 3^3*1^ «!§

This object therefore was a sacred vessel and used in many types
of sacrifice*. Vats points out that even before it was associated
with tlie " Unicorn " it was worshipped. On the tiny rectnneular seals
found below seventeen feet, {No*. 441, 443, 440) this object occurs.
Therefore «t cannot be a form of the Nandi KO/u (as the tall pole
decorate with bands of brass and an image of Nandin taken in
front of the Vlra 6aiva processions in the KarpHUka. is called in

2i. S6ma jiliee however iccmi io have been filtered through a woollen cloth.
On a . ylioder ml from Byblos a deity on an animal I* facing a ball
which !>*»» • pyranud on it. back. Between the two there i> a curioo*
vewe I. (Conieoao. La cniUtaUo* Photnidcnne fig. IS). AUo Frank-
fort. CylintUr Stall, p. 119.

32 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Kannada). Symbolically it may also have represented earth
and heaven, plants growing from the lower, the canopydike
upper part representing the sky, pouring down rain, represented
by the dots and wavy lines. In IX-3-20 one " nest " pressed upon
another nest is described, " A nest (kataya) upon a nest, a KOia
pressed together in a Koiia, there a mortal is born (vi/1) from whom
all is generated {praja)J*

The troughs in front of some of the animals had a ritual
significance. Friedeiieh* takes its absence before the Zebus as a
sign of domestication. The manger before the buffalo, tiger,
rhino, etc. show that they may not be domesticated. But Vats
thinks that it means merely offering of food and is no indication of
domestication or non <lomeMication. The troughs are of several
juniis- Usually the trough has sides curving outward at the top.
On one seal, probably astrological, the trough is like a circle with
radiating petals, perhaps made of basketry and representing the Sun.
We know that in the Vedic sacrifices the animals before being
killed were ritually fed and given water to drink. I have

elsewhere pointed out that the animals on the seals perhaps
represent creatures sacrificed to various gods to attain various ends.
In the Taitliriya Sam hit ft (V-5-I 1) says that the boar is to be offered
to Indra, a deer to Varna, a gayal or a tiger to Vfsa, to Vanina a
black deer or a gura (Bos Gavaens), a monkey to a Raja, a worm
to XilangQ (snake), a gazelle (Kuluuga) to S5ma. a simiumara
(crocodile or gharial) to Sindhu (ocean), an elephant for the Snowy
Mountains (Himavant). a purusSmrga to the moon, a dappled
deer to Day, a httin or runt to Rudra, a lion, uakula and tiger,
to Indra, a rhinoceros to K&ma, a ram for Varuna, a horse, tQpara
ftnd payal (gOmrga) for Prajipali. a Kapil a to Snmvatsara;
a humped bull for Indra, bulls with dew-laps (attliitodha kanah)
to Visnu. three dew lapped (?) goals to IndrkQL (V-6.) Five victims
Aiva, Vrm Rsabha, Hast a and Purusa are also mentioned
(V-7-10).

To Indra in war a beast with (oiwaid-bent horns, and a spot on
the forehead, for that is the shape of the thunder-bolt.

PRUTOINDIC RELIGION

33

39W SI’ffaiSH-fl JT<TSt: t#0T W: II

pjiq <jf^Ti

VlA flWWHd II

fzfa nfm ^iHi<win 3qwfii I

«: ra tHTESf^ I *8: t 4 p* 3^t *13$

•T*rfff R95I«: w>l * 1 «?nq I*

A COW kbould be M&ciiiiceii lo Va^u mid a bumped bud lo
lodra. ^¥lt fSJ 3$HWI. To obtain food a dappled an i mad

{print) must be offered to Manus, a spotted deer to Savitr for gam,
a besot of many forms {bahunpam) to Vi ivMSvfth, in witchcraft
a red cow I Ibhita) lo Rude a, a Vamatui pet a it to Visnu
a gayal to Vfyu (1 1-6 ff)

All rhc<e animals are found on the seals. The cow however
is absent because though occasionally as in the funeral ceremonies
it was sac riffed in the VM»c period, it was already recognised as
dghnayl In the Atharva <V-I8. 19) it is called Timftta poison.
“ The cow - lain pulled down the Vaitahavyas who cooked the last
she-ROot uf Kesara prgbandhas." "The hundred and one Janatas
perished lor injuring the Brahman progeny". The Srnjayas
and Vaitahavyas perished for injuring Bhfgu and brahma
*<«"• " Becoming eight-footed, four eyed, four-eared, four-jawed,
two-mouthed, two-tongued, she shakes down the kingdom of the
Brihmaru reviler." The absence of the cow cannot be taken as
indicating a non Aryan civilisation, for the living cow only has
been worshipped throughout Indian history and no images of it
as ol the b II, are adored. If the seals are taken to be amulets,
it is possible that the animals thereon were supposed to bestow
the same virtues as indicated in the Taittiriya Samhila — the bull
for virility of Indra, the rhinoceros for Kftma etc.

Trees : -The Aivaltha, acacia, aim, palm, date, banana, small
plant like lulasi grown in u bowl— can be identified in the seals.
The bamboo reeds and lotus pods along with trees occur on

34 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

pottery, and can also be inferred from the charcoal remnants.
Ears of wheat and barley are shown. Among tho fruits and
vegetables peax and xexamum are found at Harappa but not at
Mohenjo Daro. Date*, melons, lemon leaf, pomegranates, cocoa-
nuts and lotus fruit were known. Rice so familiar to the Dravi-
dians does not seem to be known in the Indus civilisation. But
the cocoanut is interesting because in South India it is called the
fruit of the south (ter.kfty) and its Sanskrit name nulikira or wan-
keta may have been of non -Aryan origin.

The Aiivattha as already indicated wax the abode of various
gods like Maruts, Rudra, the Gandharvas and Apsaras. Its leaves
are used in various charms ; so also the parna-sAmi, deodar,
nyagr&lha etc. That tree worship is a characteristic of non-
Aryan culture is a statement without foundation. There ix ample
literary evidence to show that several trees were worshipped by
the Vedtc people. The nim tree, apart from its medicinal quality,
i9 Sftcred to the so-called Dravidian Mother goddesses. But not
a single mother -goddess hgurine has been found with a sprig ol
neem leaves as ornament.

One seal at Harappa shows an acacia within a tailing.
If the tree can be identified with Acacia catechu or Purtis
<ie<xiara t it is interesting to nutc that this tree ix supposed
to confer long life and its name dSva-dfttu means a tiec of
the gods. In Atharva (VI 11-2) an amulet of deedar is prescribed
to obtain long life, to avert false accusation and in the tonsure
ceremony. " The remedy PiituJn* is the body of Agni, transporter
(p^rayisna) demon slayer, expelling diseases, and killing rivals.'*
At Khafajc a terra-cotta plaque shows “a palm tree to which
strips of cloth are tied, a custom still observed by some Arabs and
by the Yczidis in northern Iraq. The divine nature of the tree is
indicated by the horned crown with which it is capped. The
bearded figure next to it is embracing the tree with one ami and
is perhaps a god thought to dwell therein or of whom the tree in some
other way was considered to be a manifestation (///. L. News : 3th
September, 1936.) The tree is within an ornamental railing and
above the whole group there is a flower or star. Frankfort does
not believe in the explanation of artificial pollination. He accepts

PHOTO- IS 1>1C /.■ PI. IGIOS

35

the existence of tree worship. The palm tree (ka<law(> a is o( course
sacred to Kill (who is haifiiniba vana iicsiuij wul to M.ulliukosvara
(as at Banavasi). Ii is a common < u-torii m India also lo tic
pieces of cloth or colourcil strings to trees. In the upanayana, the

palaia brahma dap'la is deposited in an Asvattlia. The Atharva
VMa (VIII— 8J says that in the spells to conquer enemy armies, to
the north of the fire, a branch of red Asvattha is set up and tied
with red and blue threads. As regards the other plants and herbs
we shal I discuss them when we consider the seals as amulets and
their significance in funeral ceremonies.

The anchor was perhaps another cult object as it figures on
a miniature seal at Harappa. It seems to have two prongs and
the handle seems to be oval-shaped. It has some resemblance
to a pn k-axc. Perhaps the anchor was worshipped by the sailors
and sea farers for ships are scratched upon pottery-sherds.

The axe with the single blade may also have been a cult
object. In the Atharva (Vll-45) an interesting remedy against
jealousy is given. Water in which a heated axe had been dipped,
(par>iiu phUnfa) was given to drink. There is here a reference
to the Indus people.

" I rom a people belonging to nil peoples, away from the
nvei Jmsdhu “ brought iiither, from afar I think thee brought up
a lemedy, of*, jealousy.”

A similar remedy is prescribed for taknuui (Atharva 1-25.). It (?)
is addressed as the god of the yellow one (jaundice ?). ArW<« by name.
This mysterious nurd is said to mean a ram. Its variants ate
huUn. hrtdru, Arwfn, Itiju, n«fi«. rijhu. Henry compares it with
the Assyrian Ifumiu, the Hebrew lumi. the proto- Semi tic haii4„
meaning gold. Halevy thinks it is chloros, the greenish yellow
Vaiddrya r beryl. But ludian commentators take the word lo mean
a ram and perhaps it is connected with the goat, (o<fi. in Dravidian,
wfut.i iq Vedic Sanskrit). The double-axe sometimes occurs
*5 a g eometrical pattern. Whether it represents the vajra or the

26 . Heine* mentions that the language of the gods was diBacnl (tom that of
men. The gods called a river Xaiuho* and men Scatuaudoc. Xanihos
is probably coeioocied with Slndhu.

36 QUA RTERLY JOURNAL OF THE M YTH1C SOCIETY

sign o! mithuna, and has any connection with the duuble-axe
cult ol Egypt and Crete, it is not possible to say. In any case,
in the Indus civilisation the double-axe was of less importance,
as indicated by the absence of any clear model.

" Mn ct-headt -The so-called mace-heads at Mohenjo Daro
are mostly lentoids and at Harappa round or pear-shaped. At Tell
A grab maceheads of lime-stones, marble, alabaster, serpentine
are found in the Early Dynastic period. These stones were
probably im|>orted from Iran into Mesopotamia. One in the
shape of a hammer-axe is rare in Mesopotamia but common in
pre- historic Europe and also in the so-called treasure ol Priam at
Troy. Frankfort thinks that the mace-heads probably served
as arms for toe temple guard. But as we are not sure that there was
a highly developed organisation in India, the inace-heads might
have been cult-objects and used in the worship of fertility gods.
If they were lor secular purposes the civic authorities might have
used them mounted on wands of authority. At Khafaje two
mace heads used in ceremonies show two lions facing opposite
ways and one has got an inscription. (III. L. News : July 22, 1933).

Bends .—Beads, even now called “manis” were meant not
merely for ornaments hut as amulets. Marns ol various kinds
are mentioned in the Atharva Veda. In Hindu marriage
ceremonies, bead9 and gold ornaments shaped like breasts n are
strung together aod worn. The bhahingas, made of pith in the
shape of female and male organs and ornamented with tinsel
are tied on the foreheads ol the bridegroom and the bride respectively.
The beads of black glass are now held to be (along with bangles),
indispensable to married women. Little children when dead
are buried with a few beads in their mouths. The custom of sowing
the house-site with beads was prevalent at Brak in Syria. More
than 40,000 beads were cast into the soil to celebrate the foundation
of the tower platform. At Tell Agrab the beads consisted of
lozenges of blue and white lime-stone pierced on all four sides.
Chanhu-Daro of course was perhaps the greatest manufacturing

27. Compare tho beads of roam root h-ivory shap«J like fena’e breasts aod
strong into a oeckUce in Moravia. (///. L. Sews . March 25tb. 19J0).

i ‘Hort ns me u i-ucios

S7

ceoite. Agate. carnehan, steatite etc »nr used and the bead-
were so «'«y ll>ai ihiriy.loui made .111 iim I? " How they w err
shaped and even mote How they wore Imred i» at pri-sent rpulr

Incompreheonible

The sal a gram a (ammonite) seems to have been another
cult-object ; the design is found on pottery and Mackay thinks that
it was also worshipped : whether it was supposed to be the abode of
VifQU, as io modern Hinduism, there is no clear evidence. The
conch iiankha) is found and when made of iKittery as at Chanhu
Daro resembles the modern iankha used in daily worship by
Brahmapaa, to pout water on the idols. The sahigrima, iankha.
a plant m n pot (probably the holy basil tutasi) the eagle with snakes,
and the sun-wheel designs (cakra) may point to a type of
prolo-YuisQavism, if such a conclusion is not too far-fetched.
There is icthing inherently improbable hi the existence of a proto-
Vai^pavism along with protO-Sikism ; lor the later histoiy of these
two inono-tbeistic sects shows the same stages of development,
philosophy and ritual practices. The torso of an young man in a
dancing i«osture discovered at Harappa is taken to represent a
dancmg god. Both Kafarlja and Kfspa are dancing gods. In
some x -I upturns Kfspa is represented in the same posture as
Kataikja.

Other cult-objects are the kidney shaped " seals " and knobbed
pottery, which have close resemblances in Kliafaje, Ishchali and
Tell Agrab in Mesopotamia, Brak and Cliagar Bazaar in Syria.

( To be concluded )

THE SARVASTIVADINS AND THE MAHASANGHIKAS
IN THE KUSANA PERIOD

Bv Baij Nath Pciti

Thk epigraphic evidence bears testimony to the existence of
two rival schools of Buddhism namely the Sarvfetn&din* and
the Mahfcxaugliikas, in the KusAna period. These schools hnd
their centres not only in India but also abroad 1 , and each
aimed at turning down the other. From the Mathui* Lion
Capital Inscription' of the time of Sodasu we learn that the
Mahkonghika school had a strong hold at .Mathuri It is
stated in that inscription that a Sarvgstivftdin leachei named
Budhila was imported from Nagara in the Jelalabad district
to counteract the truth expounded by the MabAsanghikas. From
this record two conclusions may be inferred. Firstly that the
MahAxahghikas had a very strong hold at MathurA slightly
before the time of the Kusanas, and as such the Sarvfetivldins
had to import a specialist from their headquarters., Secondly,
in pursuance of the object for which Budhila was imported, the
school of the Sarvftsiivtdins which was supposed to be in existence
wax reinforced by the new arrival. Thus before the time of
Kusflnas there were already in existence the two rival schools.
Their existence m the KusAna period is testified to by a
number of epigraphic records both in HrAhmi and in Kharosthi
belonging to that period. Before going ioto a discussion it is better
to take note of these records and we have the following records
regarding the SarvAstivAdins.

The Kapiska Casket inscription * of the fust year records the

t. Cl. The kurrain inicripuoQ of the king Kanl;.k« nod the Wardbak
laser, pnon ol King Hu.ijk.. Sun Konow corpu. VoL It. p. ISS-105.

2, Sun Konow - Corpus Indicants Vot, It. p. 30 fl.

3. Ibid p. 137.

SARV2STIV2UINS AND Till-: MAH.lSA flGHIKA S 39

gift of a casket by dAsa Agisala in Kaniska’s Vih5ra and

Hjhf *- Sanghftrftma in the possession (txtrigrahe) of the

Sarvlstividin teachers.

The Zed* inscription 4 of the eleventh year lecords tlie gift of
Hipea Dhia for the increase of the SarvlstivBda school in honour
of K$atrapa Ltaka. Zed* is in the Yusufzni disincl near Ohiud.

The Kutram inscription ' of the twentieth year records the
establishment ol the relic of lord Sftky.utium in liie new ViliOta in the
possessm of the Sarvfcitivsdin teachers. It is not certain where
the copper stupa on which the inscription is inscribed was actually
found. Kurram is a Tehsil in the Peshawar district.

Anions the Dr&hml records the Sahet Mahet inscription 4 of
the tune of King Kapi?ka records the dedication of a Bodhisattva,
an umbrella, and a stick as a gift of monk Bala, a well read person
of the Trl pi takas. They were dedicated at the place where the
Lord f i *. Buddha) used to walk in the Kosambakutl, as the
propel ly of the teacher of the Sarv*stiv*dins.

The Anyor Bodhisattva inscription 7 obtained from a shrine
known as Galatesvar Mahadeo Ma^h near Katr* in Mathurt
where it was inserted in a wall, records the dedication of the
Bodhisattva for the welfare of the Sarvtetividin*. The Inscription
is undated.

Those are the ooly Kusftpa inscriptions which record
dedications for the increase and welfare of the Sarvlstivtdins.
They also mention the names of the Vih&rasand Sahghftrimas in
possession of the Sarvfetivldins. The sect of the Mahttsanghikas
who were equally strong is found in the following records : —

The Wardhak inscription ' records the establishment of Lord
Slkyamuni's relic in the Vagramarega Vihara which was in the
possession of the Mahftsanglnka teachers. Vagramarega appears
to be ,m Iranian word. The place Wardhak is situated about
thirty miles to the west of Kabul.

*> Sicn Konow Corpus I nil carom Vol. II. p. 142.
i. Ibn! p. 155.

6. Ep. lad. Vol. VIII. p. 180.

7. Vogel : Catalogue of ibe Mailiui* Uimd No. A M.

8 Sieo Kooo* ; Corpus todlcrum Vol II. p. 105.

40 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Among the Brthmi records, the earliest is the Bodhisattva
Image Pedestal Inscription 9 dated in the tenth year of King Kapi$ka.
This Bodhisattva image was dedicated by the monk Nigadatta,
an inmate of the Vihftra to the Krau$t4klya monastery,
in the (Ghaudha) Ku \i of his own shrine in the possession
of the teachers of the Malia&aaghika order.

The Palikbdra stone Bowl Inscription 10 record* the dedication
for the M&hiaanghilca teachers. A Buddhist pedestal Inscription 11
from Mathura city records the dedication of the pedestal in the
Apanaka Vihira in the possession of the MahSsabghika monks.

There is yet another inscription 12 dated in the ninety-first year
and recovered from the debris of a home in MatAgali lane. It records
the erection of something in a monastery designated as Cutaka
Vihara (mango monastery). This pious act was executed for the
increase of the religious piety and strength of the Maharahghikas.

Besides these two important schools of Buddhism, Mathura
was also the centre of activity of the Dharmguptikas, another
important sect of Buddhists. There is an inscription 1 * on the
pedestal of a BodhisattvA image which was established by Pusika
Nigapriya in the sanctuary of her own ch*ityn in the possession
of the Dharmguptaka teachers.

Thus from a perusal of these records it would appear that in
the Ku$*pa period the Sarv&shvftdins had their centres at Taxil*.
Kurram (Peshawar district), Zeda m the Yusufxai district, Srtvasti,
and Mathur&. This school had not declined till the fifty-first year
the time of the Anyor Bodhisattva inscription. The Mahfisaiighika,
on the other hand had their centres at Wardhak tncar Kabul) and at
different places in the Mathura district. The earliest record
of the Mahasahghikas is dated in the tenth year of the King
Kaniska and the latest is dated in the ninety-first year. The
Dharmguptikas also existed in the Kus*{ia period. Further the

9. Mathura Museum Sdupiure No 2740 U. P. H. $. July 1939 p 23
No. XIII.

10. Ibid No. 662. ibid No. XI

11. Ibid No. 1612 ; ibid No. XU.

12. Kp. Ind. Vol. XIX. No. 9. (VIC) p. 69.

13. U. P. H. S. July 1939. p. 24. No. XIV.

SARVASTIViniSS AND THE MAHiSANGHIKAS 41

Sarrkfiivldins had Viharas as well as Sanghartmas. Ai Taxi la
tbey had Kanaka's Vihira aixl Mahasena’s Sabgharama. The
Mahasnnghikas had Vihiras at Mathura as is evident from their
inscription namely the Kiaush^iklya VihSra, the Apanaka Vihara
and the Cutaka Vihara 1 *. It is not known whether the Mahi-
sahghikas had any Sa:igl'Ar&ma.

Now it becomes necessary to discuss two important questions
concerning these two Buddhi9t orders, firstly the distinction beween
a Vih&ta and a Sahgharfma aud secondly the relation of King
Kaniska with the SarvSstivfidins.

The term vihara, according to Kern **, does not only denote a
monastery but frequently also a temple. This is testified to by a
striking instance afforded by a passage in Yuan Chwan’s travels
The term vihara is applied to a place where worship is conducted
while the most common term for a monastery is Sanghartcna.
Every great monastery had a vihara or temple annexed to it : at
Sarnatli and Nalanda such state of things did exist ,f .

Thus it would appear that a vihara, though a part of a
Sangharania, was something different from it. It was a place
where worship was conducted. Sarvislividins had Mahasena’s
Sahph»r»m,i at Taxilft and this Sanghartma had Kamska's
VihSra. The question therefore naturally arises, was Kaniska
a Sarvastii Idin ?

The Sarvlstivldins were offshoots of the Mahiiasakas
who in their turn were offshoots of the Thetavlda school. A
broad distinction can be made between the Theravida and its
offshoots, .-aid the Mahftsanghikas or Acaryavada schism with
•ts sub-ili vision. The orthodox Theravada in course of time
produced the Mahisftsakas and the Vajjiputtakas. The school
of the MnUisfcakas branched off again into the Sarvasmadins
and Lihannguptikas Therefore the Sarvislividins and the
Mahas-ifiKhikas were two antagonistic schools of Buddhism.

H U. P. H. S. 1939 July p. 24.

11. Manual .f Indian Baddiioi p. 81

I bill

17. Ibid
18- Ibid p til.

42 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

According lo the traditional evidence furnished by Yuan
Chwang, King Kanipka evinced interest to learn the truths of
Buddhism, hut he was perplexed by the variant interpretations
given by the two different schools namely the Mahasarighika*
and the SaxviUtivadins who had a strong hold at Kashmir.** In
concert with the head of the Buddhist church Hariva, the king,
convened a council with a view to record the different interpre-
tation*. In the council the Sarv&sti vftdins formed a majority.
The President of the council Vanumitra was also a Sarv&sti v&d in.
Since the Sarvastivadins formed a majority naturally their views
alone counted. It, therefore, naturally followed that the accepted
versions in m^st cases were those of the Sarv&sttvldios. But
what was the reason for this preference to the Sarv&sti v&d ins ?

Now it is clear from the Taxila casket inscription of the first
year ** that King Kanaka had a vihara named after him in MahAsena’s
Sangh&i&ma in possession of the SarvAstiv&din school. This would
naturally show that Kani-ska had leaned towards the Sarv&sti v&dins
even earlier than his accession, since the inscription is dated in the
first year of his reign. The vibftra named after him may also
have been built even earlier than his accession. That may
have been the reason for keeping the majority of the Sarvastivadins
with the president belonging to that school, in the Budhixt
council convened by him. As a patron of that school, it may have
been his desire to sec that the views of his school are carried which
could have been possible only when that school had a majority.
Therefore epigraphic evidence points to the fact that Kaniska was
a Sarvfistiv&lin, and it would thus corroborate Hicun Tsang's
account that in his council the SarvastivAdins had the majority
and their decisions weighed. Any traditional evidence which may
point to Kanaka's patronage of Mahayanism is thus unsupported.
In fact epigraphic evidence which is a sure and sound piece of
evidence points to the other direction, namely that King Kanaka
was a Sar v astivaiidin. As Kern has rightly remarked M In the
Buddhist council itself, on external and internal grounds, an inference

19. Waller* Yuan Chwang I pp. 202,253.

20. S*en Kvtx>w ; Corpus Indiauum Vol 11 p. 137.

21. Manual of Indian Buddhism p. 122.

SARV2STIVAD1SS AS!) THK MAHXSAfiGWKAS 43

may be drawn that the couiwtiI was only attended by the SrAvakasor
Hfnayiniiiis, or at least the opinion of the MihayAnists. if repref^nt
ed at all, found no support

The SarvA^tivadms, wlio Imd a veiv str«wic hold at Xagara in
the Jalalabad district, as is evident Irom the Matlmra Lmn
Capital inscription 22 uf the tunc ot Solasa, received an impetus
from royal patronage of King Karuska, and they were able to
•stablish a new VihAr a (novel vthara) near about Ktirram quite close
to Taxi la, as is mentioned in the Kurram Casket inscription
of the twentieth year 23 . In the time of King Kani^ka, the Sarv&s-
tlvSdins had their centres in the east at dravftstl and in the
Xryavarta :»roper at Mathutg* 4 . The centre at Mathura was in
existence even till h later period as is evident from Anyor
Bodhisattva inscription B . There is no later record of the Sarva-
sttv&dins. There is an undated record* of the Dharmguptikas
who along with the Sarv4stivfldins formed offshoots of the
Mahliisakas, but it is uncertain whether they flourished con-
currently with the Sarv&ctiv&dins, or came into existence when
the Sarvastivfcdins probably began to decline. It is not impro-
bable to suggest that the school of the Sarv&stivadins which had
enjoyed the patronage of the first Kusana king Kani$ka was
on the wane after him. This may have been due to the want of
royal patronage, lack of efficient and well versed teachers as well
as the growth of the rival school of the Mah&sahghikas- Each
of these causes has to be examined.

Now the MahSsanghikas did exist before the time of Kani?ka n ,
were in existence in the time of Kaniska®, and continued to
flourish at least till thenmety-first year of the Ku^paeta® This would
»how i h at though the Sarvastivadms had enjoyed the patronage of

Sten Koeo : Corpus Voi. II. p. JO ft.

**• Ibid p. 152.

2*. Ep.lnd.VolVltl.plgl

ZJ. Voj.1 Catalogue ol the Matbur* Museum No. A. 66.

2t. U. I> H, S. July 1939 p 24 No. XtV.

2'. Cf. Muhin* Lion Capital Inscription of the time of Sodasa.

“ U P. H. S..Jalv 1939, p. 23. No. XIII.

». Hp. Ind. Vol-XiX. p. 69

44 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

King Kani$ka, the MaliasanghikAs were not curbed to such an
extent as to be wiped off. They had their centres in Afghanistan 30
as well as in India 31 from where a number of their epigraphic
records were recovered. After the death of King Kanaka, the
SarvSslivftdins ceased to enjoy royal patronage for even the Anyor
Bodhisattva inscription, the last and the solitary Sarv&stiv&dins
record does not at all hint at the association of the emperor with
this school. This naturally gave an opportunity for the Maha-
sahghikas to rise again. Now if we arc to believe the traditional
evidence the Bodhisattva Nigarjuna who was born as the
tradition supposes at the time of the Kaniska Buddhist Council**,
became the greatest promoter of Mahayamsm, which entertained
views agreeing with the old sect, the Mabasanghikas 33 . Naturally
the Mahasabghikas had a double opportunity to r«6e namely, the
want of royal patronage for the Sftrv&stivfdins and the existence
of the great teacher NAgftrjuna who was their promoter. The fact
that they had three Vibiras at Mathura namely, the Xpanaka, the
Cutaka and the Kraus(ika vih&ra is a sufficient proof of their strong
hold. Viewing these reasons it is probable that after the time of
Kaniska, the Sarv&stvfidins ceased to have royal patronage
and they lacked good teachers while on the other hand the Maha-
xanghikas began to rise. This may have caused the decline of
the Sarv&stiv&dins who did not leave any epigraphic record after
the Anyor inscription though the last record of the Mahasanghikax
is dated in the ninety-first year of the Kusaiia era.

It would thus appear that in ilie Kus&pu period, the two
important schools of Buddhism, namely, the Sarv&stiv&dins and
the Mah&sanghikas, continued as in the time of Sodasa, to fight
foe counteracting tbc truth expounded by each other theteby trying
to gain supremacy. The royal patronage of one sect at one
period did not sufficiently curb the growth of the other sect
which after the death of the patron of the Antagonistic school,

30. Cf Wardhak inscription of the time of Hov*ka.

31. Cf. Palikna** stoat Bowl Imcnptmn »nd other* No. Xl-XJV of U.KH.S.

July 1939.

32. Kera : Manual of Indiao Bnddhua. p 122.

33. Waddell : The Boddh.ito of Tibtfan Umiba. p. 10.

SARViSTIVtDINS AND THE MAHA^aNQHIKAS *5

coupicd willi iis vchr:nenl and ardent supporter Boddhisattva
Nigfir) u ’"‘ earned supremacy. Whether ihe Sarv&stiv&dms
with the help at Dhairngupta, and bis sect, who also belonged to
Mahh&sakii group tried again is a question to be discussed later. 34

3«. Rrail >i the Utl Seisioa of the Indian History Congress. Lahore.

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THE LEGEND OF PRAHLADA 1

By Mohan Singh, rh.D., D.Litt.

Ill

The Esoteric awl Phenomenal meanings ef the Legend of Prahlida

Although I have tried to extract the possible historical Prahlftda.
on studying the Taillireya * and Hrhaduranyaka Vpamsad*
I sometimes (eel that it is a legend and has been based on and
developed out of the ttrahmaitat and the Upanisndi. The clue
is supplied by the important words occurring in the story in its less
as in its fully developed form. Those who later fully developed it
also kept the original purpose or significance in their view.

Hiranynbaiipii is composed ol Hiranya and Kaiipu.
Hiranya is gold, wealth, the earth, that which takes one away
from Brahman. It is the form. Let tu. recall Hiranyaretas and
Hiranyngarbha in the V&las. Gold is connected with sell.
It is connected with the Saiynga. Hiranya is also connected with
Agm or fire and thus with the Suu. Gold is also connected with the
golden fort of the A$uras. These supplied the Paur&mka mind
with the great king Hiranyakaiipu of the Axurax who through
tapas obtained immortality, SarvadevSimya, etc. from Brahms,
who was wealthy, who had his Sabhii, who had his capital at
MdhsihSn’, where the temple of the Sun lay, and who became

1. Continued from V«l XXXI. li** 109.

2. Tam. Vol. I. 15. 16. 17. U. Tain. Hr. 1. 5. ». Kan. Hr- Up III. 21.

3. Tho Hkavify* Puivm records the introduction of the worihip of the Sun

into the north-west of Hindustan by Som6i>. the soa of Krishna.
Sarata departed from Dvt&rak* and proceeding (rem the northern tank
of the Siodhu. crossed tbe great river Chandrabti*g« to the celebrated
grove of Mitra (Mitravana). where by fasting, penance, and prayer, he

acquired the favour ol Surya. and was cleansed ol his. leprosy Saaita

engaged to construct the t cm pie of the Sun and to found, in connection

with U. a city on Uie banka ol the ChandrabtUga (There is a

reference to the Magas, the Iranian Zoroaatrtana.)

THE LEGEM ) OF FRAU LADA 47

proud and who went away from llialim*. The pillar In Sanskrit
M Stambha, a synonym nf which is Vtilh. With the Valli, the
•Acrificial post, is connected Xnandit in the Vedas. Ananda has
been allegorized, personified as I'ruhlfcda which means joy and,
PrahlSda which means SOMnd. He is Rum. Soma, Kama. The
formless juice reside-, m the »«f>. i. This is Pmhltda born of
Hiranyakaiipu. Sarasimhu is the same as the Uliama Punt fa.
or PuriifotiiuKi or Kara Hurt. The best man kills, sacrifices the
atura in man and the jnice, the Ananda, the bliss ol self, the K&mn
thrives and connects itself with the whole wotlJ through love. This
gives us the atonement of Prahllda, or Prahl&da's reconciliation
with H inuijhika iipu , and Prahlfcda's securing of exculpation and
forgiveness for Ins fatlier. This Ananda is also Sat as opposed to
A%ai : therefore we eet the king Prahlldi speaking the Itulh while
adjudging between Stuthana and his own son Virochatta. Ananda
is light and power. Of the one, the other is horn ; this gives us the
son Virochuni and the grandson Bali. Bali or strength will, in
its lum as an A.'iira. like Hiranyak.iiipu, gives us a legend. And
that he does. Mgiiifiying the same thing as this legend does. Kara-
simhu takes the nid of Oiu. The Pan run it, i mind goes into
details which appropriately and continuously add to it. The atura is
killed in the evening twilight at the threshold by nails which ate
tieithei wet nor dry, by a form which is neither god noi beast, and
is killed Ih-' ,iii-e he would not realise the One-mamfoldness of
Vispu. These pans of the myth proceeded Irom the character of
the realization which brings about the death of the lower-self for
the sake of inanda so that Ananda may get teconciled to the
lower-sell, which has acquired true knowledge and is nn longer the
lower sell. That realization consists in knowing the One in the
Many and in rising above both pain and pleasure, hope and
despair, hg i and darkness, virtue and vice, in short, transcending
all duality. It is the heart which is torn open. True, it is the
hcari winch must die. After death it attains real immortality.
Its previous life was not real but was a sort of curse, horn of
rejection, ignorance, though that life and power loo, had come
through creative lapas. This gives us the story of the curse Jaya
and Vi jaya brought upon themselves and the removal of that curse

48 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

through their births and deaths on the earth and their return as door-
keepers of Vi$pu. They cannot have the Heaven, cannot become
its masters. It is Prahltda who obtains the dignity of Indra and is
finally united with Vispu. It is the son alone who can enter Heaven.
Those who live in the capital of the A sura are Mlecchas ; true, for
that is the scat of Ahanhara, pride, duality, Mlya which, though
all powerful, is yet evil. Prahlfcla. the Ananda, the Amrita, is
persecuted, pressed, in denial of the Unity and Harmony, he stands
for. The Sabha is the glory that the lower-self through its lapas ,
effort instigated by the desire to wreak vengeance, acquires or
creates but such a glory is asuric and must be destroyed by the
best self. All the higher powers are for that destruction. Prahlftda
is an avatara; he is the sun-god of the Vedas. He is wisdom,
ideal behaviour and even Indra learns it from him. He is the
first one taught by Kapila wlio is no other than Rudra, the Lord.
Sukra is the teacher of the A turns ; he is wisdom and poetry.
He is the Guru both ot the A suras and the Suras. But his sons,
Sanda and Marks 4 , arc discarded by Prahlftda for they represent
the wrong, the lower, the baser use of wisdom and poetry, and yoga.
Sukra, the higner use of wisdom, is the true teacher of PrahUda-
Prahlada sees and understands Narasimha, the one in the many
but Hirauyakaiipu cannot; though the latter suspects that He
is going to be his death. The Power of fire, water, incantations,
personified as such or as priests and dailyas cannot kill Prahdda.
the Ananda, who is saved by Vifpu whom he praises, and with
whom he becomes one.

The three Upanisads mentioned above and the Taitlanya
Aranyaka lielp us to explain many a minor detail which was worked
up into the fully developed legend by the various Purapas according
ro their preferences. Parana itself comes from Puranom, another
name for Brahman in league with Satvic Maya. There is a
prayer in the Taitt-Aranyaka ; “ May the Hirayagarbha protect us ;
may Narasimha who has nails like Vajra and sharp teeth protect
us." Is it not enough to provide the Pauranika with a Man lion :
and yet the Bhigavata emphasizes that the Lord was not half a man

< Like Madhu and Kaiiatia. which the Mahabtiarau equaiet with Kajai and
Tam as. See SanU Paiva, Voh II. p. 8s0.

THE LEGES D OF PRAHLADA

49

and half • lion ; but that at one moment He looked like a lion and
at another like a man. The Higher self, the Best-man must look
like ifc n§ the Universal self is now Hart, the Lion, and now
Vit*u- The Pillar is tiie post of sacrifice: it is the place in which
the sacrificer will appear ; it is the heart, the presence of the Lord
which is denied b> the lower self. The lower self considers it
just a support of lus own glory. The Bxhadaranyaka Upatnfad
says that the demons can be overcome by Udgitta or praise.
Death means liberation from the contact of innate sin. So it was
with Hiranyakasipu. He was torn open by the nails. Yes,

“the consciousness of die soul extends to the nails'*.
Hiranyakatipu became all gods and secured his sabh a through
penance, but be forgot what the devas and aturas are asked
to realize by the meanings of the words or DS which
is, restrain your desire, be liberal and exercise clemency.
Hiranyakatipu dues none of these. Prahlada was saved by the
remembrance of the name of Rama ; quite so, for “ Life verily is
Ram, t The Sindhu country was noted tor its horses,
according to the Brhadaranyaka Upaui§ad. The lower self falls
at tlie height uf ins pride and is struck by the higher self; it is
thus that at noon on Vaikakha Sudi fourteenth on a Saturday
Narassmha appears. The lower self takes time to realize its mistakes
and expires ; he at first tries to light it but fights a losing battle,
conscious of its doom. Narnsimha , therefore, kills him in the evening
twilight, several hours after his own manifestation ; some would make
it seven days after, during which Hirauyakaeipu first makes his
subordinates, his lowei passions, to capture Nurasiutha . We may
stop at the killing of the lower self by the higher self and not bring in
the persecutions of Prahlada but put down the death of the former as
having b*n brought about at the instance of the prayers Of the good
folk tyrannized over by it, rather than to the inner hunger; in
which case B hag van may appear at the instance of the Dc\as and
«x>t for the protection of Prahlhda. In the Taut. Up. we are told
that the Rifisof the Taitt. Up. are Visgu, who pervades the Sun ;
Brahma; Varuna; and Bhngu. Han is the deity. The God Indra
,s said to be produced from the eternal V*ia*. Puruta is al
4

50 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

intelligence, immortal and golden. Malm 5 reside* in Brahman; he
obtains the kingdom of self. Let VifQu of powerful strides be
favourable to us. Penance ts Brahman. Let him worship is salu-
tation and all desires bow down to him. Hari is resplendent like gold.
Cannot we on this basis make Hiranyakatipu obtain all he desires
by worshipping Brahma by salutation . cannot we connect a
Bhargava with him as his teacher ; cannot we bring in Hari, the
lion, to liberate him from h»s sense of duality ; cannot we make
Hiranyakasipu, ignorant of the Vftdas and inimical to Indra, whom
he vanquishes; cannot wc make lodra divest Hiranyakaiipu of all
his glory of the lower-self when he is away to perform penance;
cannot we make the (Uttama Purus*) Narasimha, the Self, the
Atma, the Brahma, the Aum, have the refulgence of a hundred
Suns? Anatula, Sat and Chi I go together; therefore Prahlada
(Auanda) is a born Bhakta and knower, one who is conscious of
the Lord Visnu even in the womb, and who speaks truth, under
most trying circumstances, when the life of his own son is
at stake.

The higher self has, and accepts, no other teacher than the
Universal self; so Prahlada is taught by V^u Himself who
resides in every heart. Jlvn a* such cannot have perfect
immortality; with all his tapas he can only achieve immunity
for a long time from ordinary natural means of destruction and
acquire sovereignty over the three worlds, and extensive glory.
Hiranyakaftpu exemplifies this. All creation comes through tapas ;
hence Hiranyakaiipu to create his empire carries out tapa s and
repairs to Brahma, the creator, and has Ins wishes fulfilled, through
salutations and praise. The mentality that treats gold and a lump
of earth alike is either that of a saint or of a child :
Prahlflda, the saint, therefore, manifests his saintliness from his
very birth and all persecutions of him and Visnu's manifestations
for and to him take place while he is still a boy. Of Brahmfi, the
creator, was born Sanaka , the devotee of Vispu; of Hiranyakasipu
is born Prahlada; in fact, says the Siva Purana, Prahlada was an
incarnation of the very Sanaka.

3. Mth* it the raoox . to is Prahlid*. the moon of a particular time of if.*
year. M aha ia mo.

THE LEGEM) OF PHAHI/AbA 31

Once one is minded to intensive and extensive alleguri/ation
ami mythologization, nil one ha* to do to no dee]K“*t, watch
careful >v the numberless aspects of the self and iton-sdl, and the
% si non' phenomena of Nature which divinely teach that I elation ul
seit hikI non-self, and turn guv tlieni appropriate gait* iiMnp
pregnant words. Onc«: yon have hittnnnt/ed a I >s tract qualities and
natural phenomena, you can go oo adding endlessly any human
touches you likes or choose as impressive. This is how our legend
has growi during all these centuries. Perhaps, originally in nature
it represented only the summer Sun over ‘whelming with his light,
the moil main IfimtcaU, and the moon bringing immeasurable joy
to the sun struck people at night.

Let us hear the N/imsimhct Upanisnd (Dara Shikoh'x
Persian trail - ltion). The mother of the calves is desire; the
all -devouring lion is the Atma\ all the desires are in Maya
whocii the lion- Alma eats. The all eating lion is Bruit Hunt % he is
light. Me who thus knows the Atma, becomes the Atma and
Narasimna , the light, the Drahman, the desiteless one. The lion
is the vanquisher of all, the frighteuer of all, the joy giver of all,
the destroyer of life. We cannot name him other than Sat , Cit
and .1 mm da, All directions are his face. Ti»e Jivu'% own sin is his
devil. I ty Nara is meant to be Jiva and by Smr/r.r the

Paramahna. Whosoever doubts the unity of Atom is torn
into thoueands of pieces. This Aum (which) is the Atma;
this "Atma is the all-vanquishing lion; he destroys ignorance;
He verily ut knowledge. He is in all time, all space; He is the One
true Anna. This Mftyl, which although is not separate from
anything, separates all bodies and makes one as the worshipper and
the other as the worshipped one.

Does tips not clearly and openly avow that Hiranyakaiipu
lR the Jhu. the golden Sarasimha the Atma % and the wi9e
Prahlida, the Buddhi? Again, Hiianynksuitpu is M4yfl, Nara-
s|ndta is Brah man, Prahlada is $attva. Once again, Prahl&da is
Ananda, V.*n,» is Sat and Haii is Cit. If we recall the statement
of the Xtaifcya Purina that Mandara, the mountain, is the son of
HiranyakaiijMi then we get an appropriate phenomenal interpre-
tation which may have been the original VUic observation.

52 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Hiranyakauipu is the night over the earth and In the sky ; Narasimha
is the Sun, and Mandara, the mountain. 4 The Sun destroys
darkness and illumines the high mountain peak. We have
already been apprised of the sacrificial meaning that Visnu is the
Sacnfice Piifi/siT, Hiranyakaiiipu is the sacrifice-pa;* and
Prahlida, the Soma. Almost the same identifications apply to Bali
or Vali, the son of Virocana, grandson of Prahlad;i. Mahabharata
(Santi Parva, Vol. II) imperfectly clear on this point, (P. 123): "Tell

me where may I now find that Vali whose wealth He

was the god of wind. He was Varuna. He was Surya. He was
Soma. He was Agni that used to warm all creatures. He became
water. I do not find where be now is." Prahlida, Virocaoa and
Bab are the three (steps) equating with all other dark, aturic
threes.

IV

The Character of Prahlida and His Teachings

Uhishtna said ( Mahabharata , Santi Parva) 1 — “ The Chiel of
the I laity as, PiahlSda, was unattached to all worldly objects. His
sms had been washed away. Of respectable parentage, he was
possessed of great learning. Free from stupefaction and pride,
ever observant of the quality of goodness, and devoted to various
vows, he took praise and censure equally. Possessed of sclf-
restramt ... he was never angry with things that displeased him
and never rejoiced at the association of objects that were agreeable.
He cast an equal eye upon gold and a clump of eatth. Steadily
engaged in study of the Soul and in acquiring Emancipation, and
firm in knowledge, he had arrived at fixed conclusions in respect ol
truth.

Cakia or Indra said to Prahlida : " O king, 1 behold all those
qualities permanently residing in thee by which a person wins the
esteem of all. Thy understanding seems to be like that of a child.
free from attachment and aversion."

6. Mandara within the human body ; the seven mountains have their corrci-
pooding parts and powers in Ihc hurt an constitution— physical and
mental.

7 F. C. Bay's Translation. Vol. II. pp. I90-19J.

i'Hli LHGKSn or l>RAHL \l)A

53

Prsilllfttla sai<l " Hi* wtio rwnl< ItimsHt i\* ihc floci acIjs

good or barl. pofMiBfles a wisdom that vitiaSrrl Ho who i*

*cquiwnt«l will* oniy ?l*e fransfonnntion* nl Nature but not with
Nature that is *U|weni«! niu! ext*!-* l»y linnelf. Joels stupefaction in
consequr* ve of tfnomnro .... Wltpn I know what the origin
of ill ll>^ Aiv//rmNcr.v of nmmlity, I am im*npnlif«% O Cakr;i. of

induluhii: in «ntl !•*<>! mho iir.it is iRissrssed of wisdom,

that *« srilt-ctfstnune, that is contented with the light of sell -know-

ledge, no trouble or anxiety exists By simplicity, by

heedful next, by cleansing the Soul, by mastering the passions, and
by waving upon aged seniors, O Cnkra, a person succeeds in
attaining to Emancipation. Know this, however, that on t acquires
wisdom from Nature, and that the acquisition o/ tranquility also
is due to the sai/tt cause. Indeed, everything else that thou
perccivrst is due to Nature."

I’lie Dailya Prahlada by the merit of Ins behaviour had
snatched fioin the high-souted Indr a his sovereignty and reduced
the thiee worlds to subjection. Indra went to B'haspati wanting
tu know the source of felicity, and was refeired by him to (foanas,
(the high-souied HhSrgavS) who should instruct him better. Ufanas
therefore, disguised referred him to !>rahlaJa who had better
knowledge. Indra, as a brihmann weut to Ptahl&da, his vanquisher
and was thus instructed by Imn:*

" I do not, U regenerate one, feel any pride in consequence of my
being a king nor do I cherish any hostile feelings towards Br&hmaoas.
On the other hand, I accept and follow the counsels of policy they

declare unto me based upon the teaching of Sukra I bear

no malice. I am of righteous soul. I have conquered wrath.
I am self-restrained and all my senses are under my control.
I taste the nectar dropped hy learned men aud like the Moon among
the consultations I lix'e among the members of my race.”

Pleased with Indra disguised as a Brahmana, Prahlada told
him to ask for a boon. ludra, the clever, said that he desned to
acquire Prahlida’s behaviour*. He thereby wanted to rob

8 Mahabharata. Sami Parva. Vof. I. pp. *02*00.

9. In ili* Agronomic*! P&uetn behaviour would be motion And radiation of
the dominant plane*. reason etc.

54 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Prahlftda of his conduct. Prahlftda granted even that. The
account proceeds to tell us how Behaviour went out of the body
of Prahlftda in the shape of a flame of light and after it
went, respectively, Righteousness, Truth, Gocd-deeds, Might,
Prosperity and each refusing to live in Prahlftda as the previous
one had left. " Righteousness and Truth and Good-deeds and
Might and Prosperity all have their root verily in Hehaviour."
It was by his behaviour that Prahlftda reduced the three worlds
to subjection. He is rohbed by Cokra of that sovereignty, which
he bad Over the three worlds.

As to the means of acquiring Behaviour, Dhrtaniflra said :
“ Those means were indicated by the high-souled Prahlftda while

discoursing unto India Abstention from injury, by

act, thought and word, in respect of all creatures, compassion, and
gift constitute behaviour that is worthy of ptaise. That act or
exertion by which others are not benefited, or that act in
consequence of which one has to feel shame, should never be done.
That act, on the other hand, should be done in consequence of
which one may win praise in society."

( Concluded )

THK HHIRNK OF WISDOM

A QI'AKTKKI.V HRVIRW

DK VOTED TO

SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION & MYSTICISM.
Aunuul Subscription SI- potl //««. Single copy 113- each.

BRYNBUGE1LYDD,

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RAMANANDA THE TRUE AUTHOR OF THE
BH&SYARATNAPRABHA

By K. Madhava Krishna Sarma, m.o.l.

Though generally attributed lo Govindftnanda (See the Nirnaya
Sagar Pre“< ed. 1904; Bibliotheca Indica cd. 1863; Dasgupta.
Hisloiy id Indian Philosophy, p. 418), Bhteyaratnaprabhft, the
"cl. 1. wn commentary on the ^aqikarabhaaya seems to be really
the work of his disciple Raminanda. In the fourth of the
intrc-lm tory verses of the work the author likens himself to a bee
whir.h is contented by entering into the lotus of the feet of
Govind&nanda :

\ivother proof of the identity of the author is the invocation
to Kama. Traditiou has it tliat HamAnanda was so called on
account of his single-minded devotion to this favourite deity of his.
A comparison of ^ I

of the present work (intro, verse S) with

of the Vivaranopanytsa. another of Ram*-
namin'- works (Ben. Sans. Series, 1901, intro, verse 2), in both of
which \ isnu is said to have incarnated asVytea, makes it clear that
both ate by the same author. At the end of the latter work there is:

*i«Rs?s?«*ir ffamsgwi II

\ third of RSmlnanda's works, namely the Brahmiinrtavarsini,
a din 1 ' A commentary on the BrahmastHra, has at the end the

colophon :

*a*rian*w ^3$: w II

(Chowkhftmba ed.)

56 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

From this wc team that Govind&nanda was also called Mukunda-
govinda. h is not known how this work is attributed to Dharma-
bhatta, M)n of Tirumaliefcrya and disciple of R&machandrArya in
the colophon in the Telugu edition, Saras vutimlaya Press, 1900.
It is also not known how in the Benares edition (See editor's note)
of the V i varanopan yiUa the verse elc * w,licb

found at the beginning of the BhasyaratnaprabhS also, is
considered 4 Asatnbaddha \

There is a fourth work by our author, namely the Yogamapi-
prabha, a commentary on the YogasQtra. This also has at the
end the colophon :

(Ben. San. Series ed.)

The similarity of the titles Maniprahha and Ratnaprabhg is also
a point in favour of the identity of the author*.

The error in the ascription of the BhSsy&ratn&prabhS, which
probably originated in a wrong tradition that Govind&nanda and
RamSnanda referred to the same individual, is found also in
colophons of MSS. of the work and is not a modern one.
For instance in Nos. 8. H 26 and 27. T. 89 of the Advar Library
the commentary is ascribed to Govind&nnnda (Cf. also
colophons of the MSS. of the Government Oriental MSS.
Library*. Madras; India Office, etc.). But in spite of the
colophons attributing the work to Oovindtnanda there is found the
title R&m&nandlya at the end of both the above MSS. of the
Adyai Library, besides * Karr.&nandakrta ' contained on a By-leaf
at the beginning of the former. It is found as Rimlnandl both
on the cover and in the margins of the leaves fin the latter

in

the contracted form of one of the India

Office MSS. (Cf. Keith 7979) also. Authoritative writers,
mention always RfimUnanda as the author and never confound him

Kill AN AN *>* THK TRUK AUTHOR OF BHA$YA. 57

nltfi GovindAniind;« l’*oi lindane*, I Syagupde Vaidyan&tha so
1 , 19 K di on the LaRlius»i!iliian(.un.iH jii^A speaks of the commentary
l« 1\ft*nWr>nnda*s« Cr>«i|*aie

Bfi»[i:LH-.iggiUHMbtoB«igEiLaicm:itr.u

{Chowkhamba ed. p. 288).

WFTftfi<lHM-YW% I

Onr historian* of Indian Philosophy have not taken note of
this . nor of the fact that both GovindEnauida and Rlmteanda were
entlio than Kageia.

Aufrecht mentions the Bh^yatainaprabl.E under the nanie 3 of
liotli GovmdEnanda (C. C. I. p. 169) and REmEnaodu fp.520). The
eiitne- of VivaranopanyEsa. BhEsyaratnaprabhE and the BrahmE-
inrt.i' ir?ipi which occur tinder different REmEnanda Sarasvatls in
Aufre. ht ’8 Catalogus CataloRonini, I. p. 521. have to be brought
together under one author.

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IHAO«AVATI - IANGUOM

kumAra rAma

By H. SrKRNIVASA JoiS

KAMPILARAYA and his son KumAra Kftma wer e ruling the country
round about Hampi in the early part of the fourteenth Century
A.D. Their exploits have been described in detail in four Kannada
works by poets. All these four works are in the sdngatya metre,
m a simple and spirited style. An article containing the
summary of the work “ Kumdra Rlnuttta Siagatya 9t by the poet
Ganga is published by Mr. M. H. Rama Sarma in the Q. J. M. S.
for October 1929." An outline of the story of 4 * Paraddra Sddara
RUtnana Rathe " by poet Nanjunda is given in M. A. K. for 1929 at
pp. 36 to 47.

llampcya Charapati MahAlingasvtmy has written a work by
name 4 Ddla Kumira Rdmana Sdngatya *\ 'this work contains nine-
teen cantos (*•**♦*>) and 4283 verses. The poet has paid homage to
Kavi Kalidasa, Kanaka, Talapada, Charma, Purundhara-Vittala
Harakavi, Hampoya Hari, Raghavaoka, Kereyap&dmarasa, Kavi*
linga and others. The poet belonged to the Revanacarya Sampradaya
of Melanagave of Sivagango

and wrote this work by the grace of the God VirupAksa
caa). The poet might have lived during the sixteenth
century A.D. This i* a very rare manuscript copy in my possession.

Another work on KumAra RAma is the one written by poet Naga-
taigayya by name Parandrtyn rige Sahodaranembaniha ka the ”

which contains twenty-five cantos and
2573 verses. The author is no doubt a Saiva as be has paid homage
to diva and PArvathi. He has also referred to the deities Viresa
of Lepaksi, Clmnnavira, 6n Kpsna and Jalangi Rame^. Though he
lias paid homage to the learned in general he has not mentioned
the names of any earlier poets.

• The Exploit! of King KarnpiU and Kuixm* Kamanatba (Gaaga't version)
—By M. H. Kaias Sbarroa. v.au.s. Supplement to ** The Quarterly
Journal of the Mythic Society *\ October I9W.

KUMAR A RAM A 59

An outline of the story as given by Nagasangayya is given
bek>v -

I A chieftain hr name Mum mad i Singa, Kirata by caste,
was tilling a petty kingdom in eastern Karnataka country.
He d"*J of old age le aving behind him a queen Manchale and a
youn <-•*: K' ^at&ya. Soon after his death a famine set in
that OMintry and hence Manchale Devi left the country with her
son ar l followers. They temporarily settled near Jatangi Rim a*
giri Hill do** to ihe River Chinna Hagari. There lie was blessed
with a son by the favour of the deity Jafangi Rimeia who became
the family Gorinf Kampilariya tlience forward. Kampilariya left the
place md finally settled at a convenient place in the Hos&male valley
near Kumarasvnmv Hill.

2. Kampilariya built there a fort called Hosmaledurga. He
acknowledged the suzerainty of Jagadappariya of Gutti and paid
tribute to him. He became a crowned king. He married Hanyala
Devi, daughter of an expelled king of Gujarat called Cha Rima-
riya. Hanyala Devi became a crowned queen and was blessed
with a son by the family deity Jafangi RAmeta. He was a good
athlete, delighted in wrestling, horse riding and elephant riding.

3. Kampilariya while returning from the hunting ground met
a beautiful maiden named Ratnaji whom he married forcibly.
Hanvata Devi apprehended that Kumira Rima might he ensnared
by Ratnaji's beauty. But Rima consoled his mother by taking
a vow that he would never swerve from the right path.

4 While KumAra Rima had gone for hunting he saw
Kumniatadurga which was in mins. He thought that it was a
convenient place to have for his capita). At his suggestion
Kampilariya got anew fort built by his minister Baichappn. Kumira
Rima entered the new fort of Kummatadurga in an Auspicious
moment. He collected a large army and conquered the fortsof BadAmi,
Hauagallu and Monadi. Jsamptla's joy knew no bounds at his son’s
success, but the Jagadappariya of Gutti ar.d King Ballilaraya
were alarmed. The heroic deeds of Kumaxa Rima were duly
communicated to the Sultan of Delhi.

60 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE M YTHIC SOCIETY

5. When Babamma the Delhi Sultan's daughter heard nl the
beauty and heroic deed* ol Kumara Rflma, she decided to marry
him and none else. The Sultan promised her daughter that he
would get Rftma to Delhi. But all his attempts became futile.
The Sultan’* soldiers were insulted by Kumftra Rftma by wearing
the 6hoes of the Sultan.

6. Jagadapparftya. King of Gutty who was subordinate to
the Sultan was ordered to attack Kumftra Rftma and send him to
Delhi a* a prisoner. Jagadapparftya'.* army was utterly defeated
by Kumftra Rftma.

7. Jagadapparftya wlm was very much pleased with the
valour of Kumflra Rftma gave him hi* daughter Rftmalftdcvi in
marriage. Four other brides were selected and the marriage with
five brides wa* celebrated with great pomp and pleasure on
Thursday, the thud day of the bright half of Maghii.

8. Yappatirftja *on of Vira Rudra of Oragalhi had a horse
named Bolla which he had purchased for a lakh ol varnliaa.
Kumftra Rftma went to Oragallu and in a battle that ensued he
defeated Yappatirftja and captured this famous horse Bolla. lien
Sctti Linga a geneial of Kndraiftya abandoned Ins master and
joined Kumftra Rftma and they hecamc thick ftiends later on.

9. Marane Gowda, a chief of Huhyar Nftdu under Hoysaja
Ballala Rftya heard of the triumph ol Kumftra Rftma and told hi*
generals that he would march against Kumftra Rftma* and bring
him a prisoner. When this boost reached the ear of Kumira
Rama, he immediately marched aga.nt Huliyar, defeated Marana
Gowda who paid a tribute and also presented Kmnftra Rftma
with a parrot of golden colour. Rftma returned home triumphant.

10-12. A Sirdar by name Bahadur Khan incurred the
displeasure of the Sultan of Delhi. He immediately left the place
and sought the protection of the several kings of Southern India. It
was Kumftra Rftma who piomiseil him protection. Nemi Khan,
a trusted general of the Sultan of Delhi, marched against Kummata-
durga with a large army and sent word in advance to Kampilarftya
offering certain term*. Kumftra Rftma refused to sunender Bahadur
Khan and styled himself as " Slarrhahhavata &arekoduva Rayara

KUMAKA HAilA

61

Oattda The genetal surrounded the hilly Pact ol Kummata-
durg* and a fierce haiile rciiunl. Nemi Khan could 1101 fight with
the Bedard in the Hilly tract and was finally defeated and returned
to Delhi.

13. Menu Khan sent a letter to Ballajatftya lequextmg him to
fight with KuiiiArn Kama and to capture him alive. 13alla|a>Aya
with the help ol the armies ol Kudr.it Ay a ol Ontgallu, Singaiftya ol
Mungali Deaand the Musalmnns of Chipjiagin (A muhanuuedan
garrison was stationed at Chippogin in the Kellary District) and
others attacked a Ion belonging to KumAra Kama Uallajariya was
overcome and he entered into a compromise.

14. In the next spring Kampilatiya went on a hunting expedi-
tion with his retinue while KumOrn Kama collected all the boats in
the town and went to the Kivcr Tungabliadra along with his Inends
and relatives and spent the day in boating till they were tired.
Then they went to the Vtiupnkiasvamy temple and oficrcd prayers.
They returned home in the evening.

15. Kalanna suggested to Kumitia Kama to engage them-
selves in a ball-play. Kunuua Kama pcisuaded his mother to
give him the pearl ball while she tried to disuade him from the
ball-play. As her warnings proved futile she ga.c him the ball.
Many nobles aud Inends took par* in the game. Tim plain m
Iront of Kalnaji's palace was chosen as the play ground, t'.iti/ens
and a number of dancing girls of Kuminatadurga assembled there
to witness the ball-play.

lb-17. Katnaji the most beloved wife of KumpilarAya wiio
heard the noise and laughter made by the |*aity during the play
went to the upper storey ol the palace to witness the game.
Sangi. the maiden servant of Katnaji was pointing out each member
of the play to Katnaji. When she saw Kumara Kama she fell
in love with him lorgettmg she was his step mother. Through ill-
luck the hall fell within the compound of Kalnaji’s palace.
Immediately she took the ball aud worshipped it keeping it on her
cot. KumAra Kama sent Katarina and then Balluga to letch the
l«all, Katnaji reluscd to give it to any other than to Kama himself.
So m spite of several warnings he went to Ins step-mother's apart-
ment to letch the ball. When Katnaji saw him she exjircssed

62 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

her passion to him and made several overtures. Kumara Kama's
advice fell on a deaf ear. He tried to get away from the palace,
but she would not allow him. He forcibly withdrew from the
palace.

18. Infuriated Katnaji misrepresented these facts to Kanipila
r6ya aod told him that she would die unless Kama's head was cut off.
The king sent word with Bhandarada Bukkanna to the minister
fiaichappa to cut off Kama's head immediately.

19. The clever minister ascertained the truth of the incident
and concluded tha't Kama was innocent. He concealed Kumara
Kama in an underground cell specially prepared with several o(
his companions. The head of one Kalla Bhanta Kama (which
icseinbled Kuinaia Rftma's head) was cut off with his consent and it
was shown to Katnaji as a token of his death. The news of Rama's
death spread all over Bhartakhanda immediately.

20. The Sultan who Ie3rnt the news sent his general Nemi
Khan with a large at my to capture Kummatadutga. At the
approach of this large army, Kumara Kama's subjects fled in all
directions. Nemi Khan sent word to Kampila to surrender Bahadur
Khan and be happy. The King refused to do so. A fietce batile
ensued and many persons lay dead on hoih sides.

21. Nemi Khan determined to take the fort by storm and
advanced as far as the Tiger gate (*■« *»“). Kampilaiiyn was
disheartened at this and felt sorry for having executed his son. The
tactful minister consoled the king and promised him to make arrange-
ments to drive away the enemy. At the request of the minister, Kumlra
Kama and hut companions came out of the cell and fought bravely.
When Tumbara Khan, a prominent general of the .Muhammadan
army fell down dead, Nemi khan being disheartened at this
disastrous defent retreated. KampilarSya’s joy knew no bounds
when ho found out that the new cavaliar was no other than his son
K utiiaui Kama, hut Katnaji and her maid servant committed
suicide.

22. Kampilarfcya who was over -joyed at the success of his
son crowned him king. Many outsiders came and settled in his
country. The kingdom was peaceful. The Samantas of Ikkeri,

KUMAR A R2MA

63

KjJyanna. Kalburgi, Sagaia. B&dami, Toregalltt, HasavSpa liana
and Sim paid tributes to turn.

23. Kuutiia Rftnu then went on a pilgrimage to Hampi
Virupaksa and Ja^uigi Kameevata accompanied with his parents
and retinue. He visited several important places in his kingdom
enquiring aftet the welfare of his people, lie built dhavniasAla*,
tanks, and wells wherever needed.

24. The Sultan of Delhi was very forty at Ins general's
defeat. A maid servant of the Sultan* a native of middle Konkana by
name Matangi, promised tluu she would capture Rima and bring
him alive to the Sultan’s presence. The Delhi army once again
marched to Kurmnatadurga which was Jl'4) m/nv distant from
Delhi. When Kliinlra Kama learnt of this, he mode arrangements to
defend the 1 'or t ami fur greater safely, I e sent his parents together
with the Treasury, the family and rhiidtcnol Kalr.dui Khmv -500
horsemen and the minister Kairl.appa to HoaiUiiga. Id the fierce
battle that ensued the Muhammadans were severely beaten and routed
and an immense booty captured. Mat aim i saving that it was
impossible to tight against Kumar* Kilinn in the the lulls and dales
that surrounded Kummatndurgn, retreated with the nobles for a
guvffifci distance. Kumfira Kama returned home happy.

25. The Teluga manneyars who weie serving Kama and who
bore a grudge against him as he was wearing an anklet in proof of
one of Ins titles 'champion over nine lakhs of Teluga*'

betrayed him by requesting Matangi in return mid lay
siege to the fort when they would Open the fort-gates. Malanpi
made use of the opportunity and gut a huge of number of lledais killed
before day break. Next morning Kum&ta Kama learning the
news, mounted his burse Holla and pioct*dcd to the war- field.
Ramayya lighting furiously caught hold of Malanci with her plaited
hair (wtOteij and raised his sword to kill her. but on a second
thought he let her go putting the sword in his sheath as a hero
should not kill a woman even in battle. The ungrateful woman,
using this advantage hit him with an arrow which struck him in
his chest. When Ramayya pulled nut the arrow, blood oozed out
abundantly and his face faded away. He then ordered the gute* to be

64 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

closed and went to Guge-kallu and sent word to his parents with
Katanna that his death was nearing. Kumiira Roma's wives and
other ladies smeared their bodies with saffron paste and went in the
streets singing -the glorious deeds of Rammayya. They then
worshipped Gouri and entered the flames laughingly and burnt
themselves to death. Katanna killed his wife plunging the sword into
her chest. He returned to the war-field and communicated everything
to his brother Uamayya. Katanna killing the enemy without
numbers fell down dead. When Kumftra Rama saw this he
closed his eyes for the last time.*

* Til* work alwijitlv nr.it. I.»r*.

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THE LATENT LIGHT CULTURE

TINNKVEI.I.Y INDIA

STUDIES IN PLANT MYTHS. NEW SERIES. No. IV

On the Ancient Creek Myth about the Metamorphosis of
Daphne into the Laurel Tree

By ti«k late S.m:m Chandra Mitki, m.a., b.l.

The tree, which is mr»i: »^ed m the undcrdescribed ancient
Greek myth, IS the- lliv nr ^weet Laurel (Lauras uahilis) which
belongs to the order t+intridac. In this order arc included
54f«or/r.i*, btumin. camphtr and other tre*s which are well-known
for their aromatic and medicinal qualities. It »* a large ever*
green sOn ith with ♦ ••icasioimlly attains to the height of sixty feet
but seldom assume* th* itpMwitcc of a true tree Its
leaves are smaller t:;;tu ihj^a of the Other specie* nf laurels and
possess an aromatic at: I -!• ^Iitly bitter flavour. But they are
quite free from the ivyi*onou» pvopt»rti*n of the Cherry Laurel
(Primii* hnuc L\r,t*i(si'itr i munim). The Bay or wet! I -nurd is
a native ol Italy, Greet a and North Africa.

Tiro Bay or sweet Laurel is generally believed to Ik: the
Daphne ol the aucirr.is. The ancient (Hecks nai l a led the
following myth to account lui the oifgm ol this tree -

hi ancient Greece, there wan a beautiful grove in which
a nymph named Daphne lived. One day whiio Daphne was
wandering in this grove, Cupid the god ut lute shot an atruw
of le.ul into her heart ; and the «m tell a raid shiver ot hatred iuii
through her. Tiiereatter Cupid moi a golden anew into the heart
ol the Miu-god Apollo who had, shortly hclorc, slain the tumble
monster unified Python. No sooner had the »un*goi Apollo caught
a glimpse of the beautiful nymph I tapirne, who wa$ at that lime
wandering about m her grove, than he tell deeply in lo\e with Iter .
and lust as quickly Daphne wd been made to hale \|x>ih>.
Thereafter she turned to dee from mil into the woods. Apollo
pursued her quickly, calling tu he: ran to be afraid and rtot to i tin
so fast, for feat site might hurl licixdl on the thorn* and In ambles.

66 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Al last Apollo shouted out to her : “ Do not try to run away from me.

I love you and will do you no harm. I am the great sun-god
Apollo."

But Daphne was only the mote terrified on hearing these
words, and ran away more swiftly while Apollo still pursued her.
He had almost overtaken her when she stretched out her arms to
her father who was the god of a river along whose hanks she was
fleeing. She cried : " O father ! help me ' help me I help me ! Either
let the earth open up and engulf me within her, or metamorphose
this form of mine so that Apollo will not love me.”

Hardly had she finished her appeal for help, when her limbs
grew heavy, and a thin bark began to cover her skin. Her hair
became changed into green leaves, her arms tn slender and slim
branches, and her feet, which had carried her along so quickly,
were now rooted to the ground. Her father had responded to her
appeal for assistance and had metamorphosed her into a laurel tree.

When Apollo saw that his beautiful Daphne had become n
tree, he wept and threw his arms about the newly-formed bark and
said : “ Since you cannot be my wife, fair Daphne I at least you
shall be my ttee, my laurel. Your foliage shall be used to crown
the heads of victors and shall be green alike in summer and in
winter." And so it happened— liar laurel has become Apollo's
emblem from that day on, and has become the symbol of honour
and triumph.

From a careful study of the foregoing myth and of the
account of the superstitious beliefs connected with the laurel, which
has been recorded by the Roman naturalist Pliny, we find that: —

(1) The ancient Greeks believed in the existence of a vege-
tation-spirit which resided in the blood ol certain human
beings and of particular semi-divine personages such as
nymphs, which vegetation spirit, after the death of its
possessor, became developed and gtew up into trees,
shrubs and flowers.

( 2 ) The ancient Greeks looked upon death a9 an ugly event

and, for this reason, contrived to make the deaths of
virtuous men and women, and of handsome young men

STUDIES IX PL A X T MYTHS XEW SERIES. So. IV 67

ami maidens l«>k leuuttful ami pretty by mctamorpliosing
ihen dead Ixxlies into trees and ftmvcnng shrub*. an in
the rase* of I ’hi lei non and Iktucis. Narcissus and
1 I yacmtlius.

(3J The ancient (Greeks thought lJuil the Hay ot sweet Laurel
WAS sacral to the Sun -god Apollo, “especially in connec-
tion with Tempc, lu whose laurel groves the said god
himself attained purification from the blood of the monster
Python {whom he had stain). Tins legend was dramatically
represented at the Pythian festival once in eight years.
On this mcavoii. a Imy who had lied ftotn Delphi to
Temp*. \v;is altera time, led bad. with song, crowned
and adorned with Jay i el *\

(4j In ancient Greece. the victors at the Pythian Games used
to lie crowned with the laurels of the sun-god Apollo.
In this way, the saved laurel nr Hay became the symbol
of triumph in ancient Home ns wall ns in ancient (ireere.

(5J As Apollo uns mulled lo he the Rod .>1 Die meiilcioous

pocls III MKHTIII (nettle itml Home wen rewarded with
I he /.i« m u AppoHnuirts.

(<>) A'.onlimi 0 > the Uoiiihh iinmrnli.i rimy. Die liny or
'«"'i IjmiU'I u-i‘. like ill. lunii.-li ..i i )e nine tire, tin-
svihIkiI i.i liueo and victory. I'oi this iruim, Inters
.innoiinriiiR victory anil the aims and weapon* of the
victorious .soldiery lifted to he he-eat landed and he* wreathed
unit the leaves ol the lituicl-lice.

(7J Tin ancient Unmann Litr.rd that hghrnmg ••onld nnr
strike the Hay nr sweet Lautt'l. Koi this reason, the
Unman Knt|M*mr Tilwrius always wnie a wn.ith of laurel,
k u es dining thunder storms as a sort n| protection from the
Itgmniny -stink*, Tim fore go: 1:1: are lent Unman supersti-
lion fours .1 striking similarity in the mndeni Bengali
I linrlti belief under the influence of which Hindu house-
holder* in I Bengal place, on the terraces «,f their houses,
ixns with plants of the manasa 01 sij (Euphorbia merit
growing in them. This 1 * hebrved to protect the
houses fmm being struck by lightning.

63 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

<8 ) Ic is oo account of the ancient Greek and Roman belief
that the tree possessed the divine power of purification
and protection that it was often planted before the doors
of Greek houses, while, in ancient Rome, this tree iu*d
to be planted before the gates of the palaces of tire
Cxsais in order that it might serve as guardians and
protectors thereof.

An Useful Book for Schools. Libraries, and Students of
Mysore History !

MODERN MYSORE

By Rajakarynprasakta Ran Bahadur M. Shama Rao. m.a
{Retired Civilian of Mysore)

A very interesting and useful book oo Mysore History
from the time of the Early Yadava Kings of Mysore
to the trip to Europe of His Highness Sir Sn
KrishnnTAja Wadiyar IV; in Two Volume!*..

Copit \ can be had from

THE GENERAL SECRETARY,

Mythic Society, Daly Memorial Hall.

Cenotaph Road, BANGALORE CITY

REVIEWS

Adminifctralioo aai Social Life Under Vijayanagara —By T. V. Muha*

lingam, Madras University Historical Senes No. 15,

Pi ice Rs. 7.

MUCH progress has been made in the study of the Vijayanagara
Empire since Sewell’s day and since Dr. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar
started his interesting study on the Making of Mysore over forty years
ago. On the third dynasty of Vijayanagara itself a number of books
has been published and Father Herat who challenged the genuineness
of many of the inscriptions concerning Vijayanagara is responsible
foe the mcreasihg interest 10 this study during the last decade.
The foundation of the empire bad in its origin the protection of
Hindu civilization and while religious movements which arose later
divided the Hindu society, yet all great religious teachers and
leaders of political thought rendered signal service in this rally
again**; the onslaughts of Islam. The contribution of Vijayanagara
to *nt and architecture, literature and administration and the social
hisiois of the period is vast since this empire followed the forms of
governance in the Hindu India as we know them. It is interesting
to remember that Vijayanagnra provided co-rulers quite distinct
from a prince or a YuvarAja for distinct parts of the empire with
a kind of concurrent jurisdiction, all under the king. We find
that the selection of a ruler was by a unanimous vote of the people
assembled and was made generally in the presence of ministers
and nobles. The king was not an autocrat aud Ins powers were
limited by public opinion and by the royal council* and by certain
codes and institution* and had to lie exercised and administered
with due reference to the existing laws of the land.

The conqueror of Maduia, Kampanna Udaiyar was according
lo tradition a door-keeper under the Hoysa(a kings suggesting
what may well be called the Karnitaka origin of the Vijayanagara
Empire The book is replete with details of administration, via,,
revenue, law, justice and police ; military organisation ; provincial
government as also public warfare and diplomacy.

70 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

The influence of local bodies over the revenue policy of the
government was great as the government could not impose new
taxes or remit old ones without the consent of the rnahioidu and
the village assembly enjoyed the privilege of confirming honours on
certain individuals for certain services rendered. The evil of
bridc-pnce with the other incidents of early marriage was in
evidence. Sati was in vogue apparently being copied from
the original home of the Vijayanagaxa Empire, the Hoyxala country
where the house holders had familiarised it. Apart from women
ascending the funeral pyre of the husband or burning themselves in
the fire, the Lingayat ladies were being buried with their dead husbands
as Nuniz says; and this custom also obtained perhaps among the
goldsmiths according to Ceasar Fredrick and Gaspero Balbi. An
inscription (EC. VIII Sb 496, 165, etc.] of the sixteenth century
also mentions this but this kind of self'immohition does not appear
to have been enjoined upon all widows but was influenced by
marital affection and was done voluntarily. Family women were
of a retiring disposition and seldom came out to take an active port
in public although there are instances of queen9 following the army
to the battle field. When KrishnadSvaiiya laid Siege to the fort of
Kondavldu in 1515 A.D . his two queens Chtnnadeviamma and
Tirumaladeviarama were with him. Salim by feudatories and
captains to the ruling sovereign was common. The king confers
very high honour if he permits any one to kiss his feet as he never
gives his hands to be kissed as Nuniz remarks. The Vijayanagara
emperor* restored ruined temples and revived worship in them,
preserved the spread of Hindu dnarma and in this arduous task
they were helped by Vidytthirtha, Knyigakti Fandita of the
Pasupata school of Samsm, Vedanta Dcaika and a number of
scholars including S&yapAcirya and MadhavCdrya who founded
a school which wrote the commentaries on the Vidas, AiaHyakas
and the Br&hmapas.

The Vijayanagara Kings built the Vidyasankara temple at
Sringcri, the Ekanithesvara and Varadarajasvami temples at KaSci.
The additions to the temple at Cbittoor and the S varga vilasam or
the celestial pavilion measuring 235 feet long and 105 feet broad
was also made. S. S.

REVIEWS

71

Soorce» of ike History • I the Nawwibe of the Caraitic D— Barhaa'i

Touk-I-Walsjshi — Madras University Islamic Series No. 4.

Price Rs. 5 or Sh. 8 d. 6.

Mb. Nainar in this Volume carries the history of the NawwKbs of
the CarnHic from the battle of Ambur to the fall of Pondicherry,
compri'inc most of the events that tended in the direction of
establishing 1 the supremacy of the East India Company. The
English ware indebted to the rulers of the Walajahi dynasty in tho
Carn»tic. Persian manuscripts have been laid under obligation
for the source* of the history and their translation is very useful to
students »f south Indian history. The severe fight between
Haiarat-i-A'Ia and Dosat Khan is described clearly and this
suggests the visit of Dosat Kban. The allies defeated the French
and Clive too had led a personal attack with a small army much
to the div omfiture of the French. The martyrdom of Dosat Khan
and Ha/nrat-i-A'Ia, the further preparations of the English to
defeat the French and the intrigues of Dupleix render the trans-
lation complete. The English conference with Hazarat-i-A’Ia and
Lally's plan of campaign are given in great detail.

S.S.

Shnj.i-ud-Daulah. Vel. I.— By A. S. Srivastava, u.a., ph.D., D.utt.
Piofeesor of History, Dungar College, Bikaner, Price Rs. 5
or 7 ih. 6 d.

This volume covers the period 1754 to 1765 in the history of India,
gives live first half of the life of Shuja-ud-Daulah and describes
the commencement and expansion of British domination over
Allahabad and Oudh. Shuja-ud-Daulah the only heir of Safdar
Jung hocame the governor of Oudh and Allahabad in October 1754.
A« he was indifferent to the business of administration and
immersed In s*iKual pleasures, the important work of the State
and ;vl real power passed into the hands of Ismail Khan. Ismail
Khan was looked upon as the protector of the people as Shuja-ud-
Datiliih’s bad cbaractei made Inm unpopular but Ismail Khan’s
deaih u 1755 brought about an opeo rupture between his ministers.
In 1756 Ahamed Shah Abdali of Kabul swooped down the fair
fields ni the Punjab and entered Delhi and returned to Afghanisthan

72 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

in 1757 after devastating the country as far south as Muttra and
Agra. Between the Mughals and Shuja-ud-Daulah there was
trouble when the latter sought the Mahratta aid but peace was
restored in January 1757. The Mahrattas were anxious to spread
their dominion over the whole of Hindustan but n was not possible.
Aharned Shah Abdali gained over Shuja-ud-Daulah and Sbuja-ud-
Daulah was found in the Afghan camp oo the battle field afterwards
on the 14th of January 1761. The Mahratta force after the loss of
its valiant leader was utterly annihilated leaving the Shah victorious.
Shuja-ud-Daulah did much humanitarian work after the Mahratta
defeat. Shuja-ud-Daulah returned to Oudh after a grand victory.
The English suspected the ambitious designs of Shuja-ud-Daulah
in the eastern parts of the Oudh dominion, when Siraj-ud-Daulah
was defeated at Plassey and the English became the real power
behind the new Nawab’s throne. The hotly contested battle at
Buxar settled the position. The shadowy Mughal Emperor
with whose name was associated an incredibly great moral and
political prestige was held in his leading strings, Shuja was the
most important and influential Indian Chief of the time. The
victory proved so decisive and complete that the British and their
troops met with no further opposition. Shuja-ud-Daulah, the erst-
while proud wazir of the Empire and the ruler of the millions,
became a fugitive and his dominion lay before the feet of the
English whom he had commanded a few months previously. He
threw himself on the mercy of the English and the final struggle
was over. It is an interesting narrative well described.

S. S.

A College Text- Book of Indian History. Vets I & II. (Vol. I. India Dowa to
A.D. 1200. Vol. 1L 1200-1700 A.D.) By R. Sathianathaier, Pub-
lished by Messrs. Rochouse * Sons, Ltd. 292, The Esplanade,
Madras.

We have here a brief and up-to-date account of the history of
India, with views balanced on many a topic still open to
comment and criticism, well illustrated with chapters on religion,
social life and culture and a section on greater India concerning
Indian enterprise abroad. Harappa, Mohenjodaro. Singanpur.

RRVIBWS

73

Peramhair ti»d Adichchanallur wavs among the pre historic site*
discovered daring recent years and the remains unearthed give
an account ot a complex and luxurious social life in contrast with
the simple rural and agricultural life of the early Vfcdic times, since
image*. «<x Messes and lingas were characteristic of the Indus
civilization. The Aryanisation of India was a long process
graphically pictured in the V«dic literature and the Rimiya^a presents
glimpse* • r the Aryanisation of South India. The geographical
outlook of die $g Veda is confined to North-Western India;
the Yajur Nuda shows a wider knowledge of Northern India and
smiuuatiFc* the geographical knowledge of the Vedas; the Brfih-
nntj-is ineutoo a number of ci9-Vindhyan tribes and peoples.
Duioig i he creative period of the four Vftdas and in the subsequent
period nr lia? U pan if ads and the reclamation of India to Atyan
way , i hr progress stage by stage is noticed. Then come the
Itiha-a- ami the Purtflixs. An ludo-Aryan society is found in the
Purus; t Mikia; whether interpolated or not, existing as a fact
apparent l\ , t ie Vedic reference to the four castes is fixed somewhere
about in • ninth century B.C. Koswla, Kaei, Mithila and Kaluga
arr •nrntmtad in the early V&iic times. The sixth century B.C.
witnessed n l.gious and political developments of far-reaching con-
Sequesters. Buddha, Heraclitus, Isaiah, Confucius and Lao Tse
were ol tins i>eriod and the quest was religions. Whether it was
due to revolt from Brahman domination or otherwise, the religious
di«M*nt was prompted by the soulless sacrificial system laid down
ni the Karmak&pda of the Vedas. With the foundation of the
Adiuemrtiiitu Empire, closer relations developed between Iran and
1ml. i. There was an impetus to I ndo- Iranian commerce and the
Achneivesiian domination was responsible for the prevalence of the
Kh**ios;i Hi-i.pf in the North-Western part of India till the third
Century A.!). The foreign influence on the punch-marked coins of
India is drvuhtful though there was undeniably foreign influence on
Maui> in - llpture. Alexander the Great, who had heard of a
fahi lom.lv wealthy and mysterious India, containing men and
lhui| 2 > nut of the range of ordinary human experience, with the
spirit of graphical enquiry and a passion for natural history, was
influ-nrird m his decision to invade India which contained princes

74 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THB MYTHIC SOCIETY

and princelings and republican clans with a fierce love of autonomy
and he left permanent effects on the Mauryan Empire.

We are all familiar with the contribution of AsOka to Buddhism.
The Mauryan revolution in the time of his predecessor was said to be
Brfthmanical and popular, protracted and bloody. Concerning
Candragupta's abdication the author also says at p. 78, that the avail-
able archaeolgical evidence in support of the story' is far from being
contemporary not earlier than the seventh century A.D. while the
tradition under consideration is generally accepted as in the main
historical. The historical value of the edicts of AtOka is in the
light they throw on the aspects of life and religion throughout and
beyond India at that time. His name is found in the Maski edicts
and elsewhere he is referred to by hi9 title Devanammpiya Piyadasi
Raja. As stated elsewhere, the empire of AeOka influenced parts
of Southern India. The Rock Edict II mentions the Colas. the
P&odyas, the Satiyaputra and the Keralapulra as far as TSmraparni
as neighbouring powers obtaining the advantages of AsOka's healing
arrangements for men and animals. As we proceed, we find the
9tory of Iodia stage by stage and century after century and
volume II continues the history of the Yadu dynasty and otbers.
The decline of Buddhism is traced to the growing strength of
Brahmanism and the triumph of Kumarila and Samkara. Though
Buddhism suffered to some extent from the violence of Puiyamitra
Suoga, Mihiraguta, Satfnka and MuhammadbinBakhtyar, the Hun
invasions in general were more injurious to it than a few persecutions
here and there. The decline of Buddhism began in the seventh
century in south India and in the eighth century in northern
India : and its collapse under muslim inconoclasm was the
formal stage of its exit from India. Changes made in Buddhism
to suit the tastes of its multitudinous and heterogeneous followers
would have made Buddha himself find it difficult to recognize
his religion for he recommeuded a short-cut to salvation and
envisaged uirvima as a near reality whereas the MahSySnism
treated it as a distant goal to be attained in the long run. In the
sphere of religion and social life, besides the doctrine of ahimsa, the
aversion* foe animal food and the growing popularity of the Vfldic
sacrifices, organised religious propaganda and conversion, monastic

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75

life, image worship, temples, festivals aod processions, pilgrimage
to bol y places :«n<l geatleoees and charily, may be mentioned
Ar. the Buddhist influence on Indian life. Jainism had a
chequered caieei but it.s devotees, though not in the Tamil country,
are found in Isinte numbers in northern India. The Indian intel-
lectual wnereignty was undoubtedly due to the great contribution
n made the udlucace of international thought aod to Buddha
i/narma.

Volume II may well be styled the rise and growth of
ok; Muhammadan dominion in India. The vicissitudes of
Indian life on coming into contact with the followers of the Prophet
<*f \mbia have been described elsewhere and need no repetition
her*. Administrative systems, large projects, art and architecture,
culture and attempts at a religious synthesis were marked
features of a devastating period in Indian political history.
Uflm.touja, Madhva, VidySra^ya, Rftm4nanda, Kabir, VailabhacArya,
Chauanya, Nanak, amongst the many, may be mentioned to this
connection. Sympathy with inferiors, love for equals and reverence
for .superiors as well as a faithful devotion to the supreme creator
of the universe was taught by all aod sundry. Akhar's attempt to
establish a universal religion, to supply a strong bond of union,
blending the twin cultures of the Hindu and the Mussulman, let us
hope will now at least be crowned with success when a common
enemy of civilisation and progress is at the sate.

s. s.

Anneal India. VJ. III.— By Tribhuvandas L- Shah, l.m. & s.,
m s.a.s. Published by Mews. Sashikant & Co., Baroda.
Price R*. 9 or Sh. 15.

Isi'iAv History by Tnbhu vandas L. Shah is a marvellous array
of wnoliy new and eye-opening theories claimed to be substantiated
wi:h la . ;U i4 figures, from coins, inscriptions and authoritative
writ*!-*. I he present volume begins from 900 B.C. and ends with
IDO 4.0. The author has -an ambition to publish the life of
Priynd.irsid and Mahavira and thirty volumes of Encyclopedia
Jamiui. Absolute truth will persist in spite of a torrent of diverse
cntMiMQ passing through various vicissitudes and will claim a

76 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

dispassionate reading. The author gives an account of the foreign
races that invaded India including G&rdabhila dynasty and
furnishes us fresh details of Patanjali, Puiyamiira, Agnimitra,
Vasurmtra and Kalki and the part played by Demetrius and
Menander in bringing about the downfall of the Sungas. The
repercussions of Aryan and foreign civilizations inter sr. and on
Indian life have been duly described. Mathura and Taxila arc
dealt with afresh in the appendix. The Abbiras, the TrikC^s
the Osvalas, the Srimals and the GOrjaras— information about
them is given in a connected narrative. Chapters are devoted
to the different eras that were founded in ancient India, Their
origin and duration and maps showing the territorial extents of
various kings and illustrations of ancient sculptures and coins are
also to be found. The author has relied for his work on legends,
traditions, inscriptions, coins and contemporary incidents narrated
in historical treatises of other countries wherever they ate available.
He has drawn inferences from the skeleton of chronology in the
wake of Vincent Smith. At p. 15 of the Introduction, he says if it
be proved that during the time when Priyadarii was on the throne
of Magadha, the five kings whose names are stated in R. E. XIII
of Pnyadarsin, were ruling over particular territories that during
the same lime particular Ceylonese kings were on the throne and
that Si-Hu-Wang, the great Chinese emperor built the famous
gigantic wall during the same time, the logical conclusion would be
that they were all contemporaries. Hence Attka and Priyadarsin
according to the author were not one and the same individuals. It
may not be possible for us to agree with many of his conclusions
but none can withhold credit for the remarkable industry and
endeavour which has been exhibited in this work. The illustrations
are excellent and the maps are very helpful.

S.S.

Hi»l®ry of Madras and Aatada Raofa Pillai— The ' Pepys ‘ of French
India. By Rao Sabeb C. S. Srimvasachari, M.a. Published
by Messrs. P. Varadachary & Co. Madias.

Rao SaHEB SrINIVASACHAHI has devoted many years to the
study of the history of Madras— Madras has assumed a

REVIEWS

77

topic*' nni-pctance also now — which he has traced from the
earliest beginnings to the present day. Parts of Madras axe old
while the < ity itself is of modem growth. The pre-historic remains
ami object- of archaeological and architectural interest are many.
The liuid i"t which the city is built is of post-tertiary formation.
Tim Cootim River is one of the mo9t prominent features of the
City Hinl it is crossed by numerous bridges in its winding course.
The hot * i >nths do not approach that of Northern India, the heat
being min- ited by the cool winds of the sea while the cooler
months .in never really cold. Fort St. George is the centre from
winch the i ty has expanded on all sides with the sea on the East.
In i he neighbourhood of Madras stone implements of the paleolithic
age are found suggesting that apparently in pre-historic times there
wiin a mighty river flowing through a valley in the region to the
uotiii-west of the" city where the Kortaiyar now flows and in this
valley pre historic man of the paleolithic and neolithic ages might
have flourished aud Uruce-Foote refers to a few cave-like rock-
shelters of primitive man. The sarcophagi tombs at Fallavaram
intuited by plain and unotnamented pottery hRve led to the
con- lusion that these graves were possibly of the neolithic age.
Them are finds at the_cementry at Kilpauk and other places which
an- -upposed to be of the iron age. Um burials are relerred to tn
am mot Tamil literature as a living custom and Madras may easily
become the mecca of Indian Pre-historians. Coming to historical
times, the ancient temple at Tnplicane is of the eighth century and
that at Mylapore has been closely associated with the Portuguese
town of San Thome from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
There appears to have been an early Jaina temple dedicated to the
Tlrthankara Neminlltha which was later on swallowed up by the
encroaching sea. Mylapore served as a port for tho Pallava
kingdom of Kfcnci. The historical and cultural importance of
Madras and its neighbourhood is a continuous one and did not
disappear with the disappearance of the Hindu dominion of South
India and Madras is one of the principal fields of European com-
mercial enterprise. A bioad marina along the sea-front extending
to over two miles from San Thome to Fort St. George has a most
attractive feature where all Madras pour* out of an evening on foot.

78 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

on bicycle*, in carriages and in motors, to feel the bracing and cool
evening breeze that blows in from the sea. Though Madras is not
the earliest British settlement in India, it constitutes their first
territorial acquisition. The story of Madras abounds with the
history of South India and Professor Srinivasachari is entitled to
our gratitude for this excellent work on the capital of South India.

ANANDA RANGA PlLLAI the famous couftier of Dupleix, has
left documents of the greatest value for the history of Pondicheuy
and of the French in India in his diary. It contains descriptive
sketches about the personalities with whom he came into contact
and furnishes rich and precise information about the Government
of Pondicherry, about Dupleix and his successors. He was a well-
known public man whose diary was published many years
ago in several volumes. The existence of that diary was unknown
till 1846 and the Secretary of the Historical Records of French
India, M. Gallois Montbum, was responsible for bringing it into
the hands of the English authorities as we have remarked in our
review of the diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai. Prof. Dodwell,
who edited the diary, in his introduction to the last volume
of the English translation said that though no one would
ever take the trouble of reading the diary for its own
sake, still it would be valuable as dealing with a particularly
critical period during which not only Ranga Pillai rose and
fell but the struggle has decided whether India was to be
dominated from Paris or London. Chapters in this diary of
the Pepys of French India make a fascinating study and tire
diary is one of our chief authorities for the period of which it
gives a march of momentous events in India with an almost
photographic fidelity. The whole period is instinct with energy
and vital experience. The tempestuous personality of Dupleix
moves with epic majesty through the intrigues of Indian rulers,
through rapine and disorder fomented by adventurers and free-
lances which are here recalled. The organisation of this remarkable
person, hi* strange and enigmatic personality, the gravest defect
m his character and administration are all brought out without
omitting even the smallest detail. He watched the lights and
shadows of sentiment and feeling among the neighbouring rulers

REVIBWS

79

will) (he consummate skill of a supreme artist in intrigue. Of
the 11*0 and circumstances of the time, Ranga Piliai was a close
and interested observer ; and be was the only Indian observer
whose views are directly positively known to us. Ananda Ranga
Piliai was better informed on political matters than any other
Indian whom the court at Pondicherry could have kept. Canda
Sahib’s thoughts upon Dupleix or Yusuf Khan's opinions on the
canii'iigra of Lally would have revealed important aspects of the
contl >:t. But they would hardly have displayed more fully and
closely the Indian attitude towards events which were so deeply to
influence the course of modern Indian history. For a considerable
time, Ranga Piliai was the foremost Indian merchant in an
essentially mercantile community and the mam intermediary bet-
ween the Governor and the Indians whom be governed. His
hiiMi itss was to know all that was going forward in the Indian quar-
ii., iu learn the news that the bankers' agents received from their
correspondents, to watch the course of trade and feel accurately the
pulse of sentiment. For a considerable time, he was the Foreign
Secretary to the Governor translating letters or getting them
translated, suggesting appropriate answers, minuti* of Oriental
etiquette and btmaelf corresponding with distant ministers. His
journal does not contain empty rumours or mere bazaar news but
the political information he gives is of gieat value. The public
is grateful to Rao Sahib for a handy compendium of this volumi-
nous diary.

S. S.

The Esrly History of Ceylo*— By G. C. Mendis, b.a., pb.D. Published
by the Y.M.C.A. Publishing House, 5. Russell Street, Calcutta.
Price Rs. 1-12-0 paper bound, Ks. 2-8-0, cloth bound.

TllK frontispiewi of the work lias a facsimile of the Saia Jfttaka,
anil the illustrations include a fresco of the Jetavana Vi hare,
I'o! inaruva. Mahftvatbsa and DipavarQsa are the historical tradi-
tions for the Island of Ceylon, and in Pali characters. The
illustrations are excellent types of tbe architecture of Ceylon and are
drawn from all parts of the island country. The landing of Vijaya
with his seven hundred followers is said to be the first human

80 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

settlement though the story ol man in Ceylon goes back to far earlier
limes. Owing to its geographical situation Ceylon contains mostly
people of Indian origin and they exercised a great influence on its
history in every way. Though separated from the mainland of India, on
all parts it is closely linked with India. Yet the influence of Buddhism
and the fact that it has been cut off from the mainland by a narrow
stretch of sea has helped it to maintain a continuity in its civilisa-
tion much better than aoy part of India itself where great invasions
and upheavals have often shattered the vestiges of its ancient and
glorious past. Therevada Buddhism which made us way to Ceylon
in the third century B.C. lias maintained itself in spite of many
vicissitudes and it still claims more adherents than any other
religion in the island. Lying midway between Europe and the
Far East, the island came into close contact with traders from
the East and West. The island is referred to by Periplus and by
Ptolemy. The earliest settlers of Ceylon were Veddas who left
no written record and about whom very little is known Or can
be said with any accuracy though they belong to the same racial
slock as pre Dravidian jungle tubes of South India such as the
I ruins and the Kurumbars, and are also apparently racially
connected with the Todas of the Celebes, the Batin of Sumatra,
and the Australian abotoginies and coming in the earliest
stages of man’s development. They made no contribution
to the civilization of Ceylon and their only service lay in the
help they rendered in forming the Sinhalese race. Or. Seligmann
is of opinion that the Bandar a cult among the Kandyans, which
consists of making offerings to the deceased chiefs and prominent
ancestors, is a remnant of the Vcdda practice ol propitiating the
dead. The Aryans who entered India long before 1000 H.C.
migrated to Ceylon from the Northern parts of India by about
the filth century H.C. thus beginning an important stage in the
history of Ceylon. They introduced iron, brought agnculrure and the
system of village government which persists even to the present day
The other stock of people were the Dravidians. There is no doubt
that Buddhism had spread into Ceylon evidently from the first
century H.C. and Polooaruva, Anutadhapura. Aluvibare and many
other parts contain evidences of Buddhism and marvellous examples

REVIEWS

81

of the Buddhist art which it has left behind. AsOlca sent a
mi»i"Oary to Ceylon in the third century B.C. and Kin* Devanam-
pjva Titisa ruler of Anurftdhapura welcomed him and got
constt'icted countless structures at Anurtdhapura itself. Buddhism
brought about a certain sense of unity among the people of the
island. The Andhras were followers of Buddhism giving every
encomagement to Buddhism and their activities can be seen from
the remains of the dagobas and sculptures at Amarivati and
Nfaftt junakopfla on the river Krwa and the famous halls cut out of
the n»:k at K*rle, Nasik and Ajanta in western India, and Nag*r-
juu< l lie great Buddhist teacher of the secood century A.D. gave
the doctrines of Mah*y4oa Buddhism a definite form. The author
has given a careful analysis and an accurate account of the history
of Ceylon in every department of life and activity. The map of
Anmidhapura is very interesting. It is one of the finest ruins of
Ceylon and to it I have referred in detail in tup tenuee cat
Anuiftihnpura. QJMS. Vol. X pp. 331-352. The book**3 conmlfte
with ;i list of kings and dates, bibliography andAndtou

A History of Tiropati. Vol. L — By RtjasevtsaktS Dqwan Bahadur

I H. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Published by TfTirmalat;

I irupati Devasihanam Committee, Madras.

U'». are told that from 1904 Dr. Krishnaswami Aiyangar was
gathering material for the History of Tirupati which he lias now
brought out at the request of the Devasthanaml Committee. The
records of the British Government concerning the sacred shrine,
now a-days attracting thousands of pilgrims, have not been made
available to him with the result that the account is not up-to-date
from :he time of the British conlact with this temple. Prior to the
time .>f the O las, the Doctor has not found any inscription and
explains their absence as due to the inaccessibility of Vengadam,
that ii. Tirupati in those days, i; being a subject of frontier disputes
betwten the Andhias and the Tamils at one period and the Pallavaa
and ibe Cijukyas in the succeeding period and the practice
of ir carding gifts in inscriptions not being then in vogue.
From such scanty material as can be gathered from the

6

82 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE M YTHIC SOCIETY

Sangam literature, Purttpas, works of Brivaispava Alvars and
acftryas, Venkatichala I lih&sa and inscriptions of the fourteenth
century and later periods, the author presents to the public an
interesting account touching the antiquity of Tirupati and its
presiding deity. Himself a 6rivai?pava devotee of the sacred hill,
DrC Krishnaswami Aiyangar carefully eschews his personal leanings
and tells us that at one time its worship savoured of Jainisrti and
Buddhism and later of Saivism until Sri Rtm»nuj*c»rya restored,
regulated and made rules for worship of the idol as Vispu. Barring
some fanatic outbursts of this or that ijvar or ac*rya the account
shows that Tirupati image has been all along worshipped both by the
Saivas and the Vaifpavas. Mysore has played no mean part
in strengthening the hands of Sri RaminujAcary* in making
Vengadam an out-and-out vaippava centre. The Devastliauam
committee could not, we can confidently say, have found one more
competent than the learned Doctor, combining in himself a historian
of repute and an ardent devotee of the holy shrine for undertaking
and bringing out for the information of the public a history which
is at once readable, accurate and scholarly.

P. S. L.

History of the British Residency ia Barnu. 1826-1840- By \V. S. Desai.

Published by the University of Rangoon. Price Rs. 8 or SA. 12
This volume gives a graphic account of the abuse and humilia.
lion to which the British Residents at the Burmese capital
J. Crawford, Henry Burney and R. Benson were subjected by the
two Burmese kings, Bagyicdaw and Tharrawaddy during the short
period of nearly fifteen years between the conclusion of the first
and the outbreak of the second Burmese wars- Further, we
get an insight into the Anglo- Burmese aod Indo- Burmese relations
necessitating the urgent establishment of a more extensive influence
and control over the Burmese court and putting up with anything
short of actual aggression or national insult. The efforts of these
officers to gvoid war aod at the same time to protect the British
subjects during the reign of these two Burmese monarchs deserve
all praise. Tbe suggestion of the Residency to destroy all boats on
the SalwWOi River giving refuge to tho Burmese robbers committing

REVIEWS

83

robbery in the British territory inciled by the Burmese government
to keep «l»« English in a state of alarm and disquietude was Dot
acted upon by the Government of India with the inevitable result
that trouble was brewing until the Second Burmese War broke out
in I 85 £ The matter is well arranged and reads like a story.

P. S. L.

Studies i. Ike HUtory of Bengal Sukah. 1740 70. Vol. L Social and
Economic — By Kalikinkar Datta. u.a., Published by the Uni-
'unity of Calcuctta, Calcutta.

MR. I)*tta, a talented scholar and a medalist, has dealt, in this
first volume of the Studies in the Histoty of the Bengal Subab, with
the different aspects of the social life of the country and has endea-
voured (Study of the economic condition of the Bengal Subah in the
middle .f the eighteenth century. Some hitherto unpublished sources
hair l> «n used for the first lime. The book is divided into four
chuptci-. Education, its ideas and institutions, position of women,
the lav. 9 and customs relating to marriage, the variety of dresses,
use mi ornaments by men on ceremonial days, dress of Hindustani
men nr. I women, and the relationship between the Hindus and the
Muhammadans are all mentioned in the first chapter. In the
second ire described English Factories and investments giving us
many now (acts ol considerable importance from the economic
standpoint. The commercial relationship of Bengal with the
other < luntries in Asia aDd elsewhere forms the subject-matter of
tiic third chapter while in the last the several aspects of internal
economic condition of Bengal under five different sections are
dearly brought out. The appendices, bibliography and the index
add to the value of the book. We look forward to the other
volumes.

R. H. R.

A Manual of the Podabkottai State. Volume II, Part I. Second and
revised edition — Edited by K. R. Venkatarama Ayyar. Pub-
lished uoder the authority of the Pudukkottai Durbar.

Wi- have in this Manual of Pudukkottai a general history of the
State from the early times to the sixth century A.D. and the burial

84 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

urns and dolmcos of proto history and pre* history periods in
section I with settlements of caste* and tribes in section II followed
by a historical account up to modern times leading to the formation
of the Pudukkottai State itself. Natural caverns and rock shelters
at Sittannavasal and elsewhere in Pudukkottai indicate the earliest
abode of man in the neo lithic and iron ages probablising the
conjecture of the late Prof. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar that this was
the home of the Paleolithic man arid the best district for the study
of the burial customs of the neolithic man. The earliest lithic
record in the State is of the second or third century 8.C. in the
natural cavern on the hill at • Sittannavasal in AiOkan-Brahml
characters of the type peculiar to South India. Panfinudu was
one of the twelve divisions of the tamil country lying between
Pandin&du in the south and Pulnfld in the north. Some Pgmjya
and COla kings of the Sangam age and the government of the
Sangam period are all dealt with in this work. The seventh to
ninth centuries mark the ascendency of the Pipijyas who extended
their conquests much beyond their traditional boundary* of the
Vellar, far into the Trichinopoly and Tanjore districts and as far
north a9 Kongunadu in the modern Coimbatore and Salem districts.
Pudukkottai contributed to the material growth of the empire
of the CO&i of the Vijayalaya line, one of the greatest Hindu
empire* known to history. The king of that empire had soldiers,
commanders, administrators, revenue officials and surveyors and
merchants who carried on trade all over India and the Far East.
The civil wars between Vira Papdya and Sundara P&p<jya paved
the way to the expedition of Mallik Kafur to Madura thereby
marking a beginning of the decline of the second Pttydyan Empire.
After its revival the Hoysalas, however, had exercised control over
parts of the State till they were defeated by jaUvarmau Sundara
P&p4ya in about 1251. Ball&lu 111 tried to re-establish the Hoys&la
power but the work was stopped on his death in the battle of
Kannanur at the hands of Ghaiyas-uddin in 1342. The subsequent
history is culled from various works including the Mysore Gazeteer.
The making of the State is clearly elucidated and the account is
up- to-date.

S. S.

REVIEWS

85

Pre Bu«Wlmt Uia— By Ratilal N. Melba, m.a. With a foreword
by Rev. Father H. Heras, s.J. Published by the Rxamioer
Press. Bombay, Price Rs. 15.

Put Hi UDMtsT India is a political survey from the VBdic penod
dotvi. to tin lime of the Buddha and the administrative, economic,
fcK-ml and geographic conditions of ancient India during the two
cemuncs immediately before the Buddhas's time called the MahA-
jiir.Ajiada i«eriod compiled from aboul five hundred aud forty-seven
jAtaka stories,

li' tills systematic and connected story of Pre-Buddhist India,
m ti>£ Wark Ages of India ", the author has lei the starlight of the
jBt-dias to dispel the darkness in an interesting, critical and impartial
ar< mint.

When confronted by the Disarata JAtaka and the RAmAyAfla
vn ons of RAma, tlie author adopts with Winternitz the view
that at the time the Tripitaka came into being there was no RAma
lip" as yet and tbtu it was created later by VAlmtki from old
bull .ds then extant. But concerning the t.ile of the Five PAnrJavas
he ! ts sentiment sway him before discussion or argument, so that
lie haracterise* the JAtaka as a fabrication prompted by tbo
compiler's zeal to decry womankind, though there is no clear
evidence concerning the original tale, the steps by which it was
fin. ly converted into a sort of national encyclopedia of tradition,
morals and religion and the date when it first took that shape.

»*r, this epic is not behind the Jitakas since we find in some
part- of the poem all action is suspended for religious edification or
long discourses on morality. By resorting to this method of
htti'ig the JAtaka version with the Hindu traditiou, he weeds out a
lot of material as of no historical value and has appended towards
the cod of tlm section of political history a long list of the names of
forgotten kings leaving the task of identification to other scholars.

A grouping of the JAtaka* to a chronological order would have
enh.oced the value of the book and facilitated the task of tracing
thv process of amalgamation of the two races, the Dravidians and
the Aryans, which was going on during the period covered by
«hiv work. In bis foreword. Father Heras no doubt hints at the

86 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

importance of this subject but thinks it to fall clearly outside
the scope of Mr. Melba's present work. That the J&takas
championed the emancipation of caste held by the Aryan tradition
cannot be ignored. The Samkhapala Jataka (No. 524 in Cowell's
Jfttaka) exalts Duyyodhana, Prince of Maghada, to the rank of a
Bodhisatta. All lovers of ancient culture and students of proto-
Indian history are laid under a deep debt of gratitude to the author.

P. S. L.

Guide to Arciueologicjl Galleries and lilostratioas of Indian Sculpture ;
Mostly Southern— By F. H. Gravely, D.Sc., F.R.A.S.B. and
C. Si vara mam ur thy, m.a. Published by the Madras Government
Museum, Madras. Price As. 8 and He. 1-8-0, respectively.

IT is a pleasure to go through the archscological galleries of
the Madras Government Museum. The Introduction by Gravely
and Sivaramamurthy and other Curators to South Indian Temple
architecture and sculpture is excellently got up and helpful. In the
guide there is an illustrative map of ancient and medieval Indian
political geography. The Introduction begins with the stone
implements first rough and then more highly polished and proceeds
to consider the metAl ones and then the early sculptures of the
Am&rfV&ti school and then the Gncco -Buddhist school, the early
indigenous sculpture of the Mauryas, Sungas, Andhra* and
KuWpas and the Guptas fotlowed by the South Indian temple
architecture in its various designs. The development of corbel,
pavilion and niche iu the Tamil temple-architecture is well
illustrated : so also the star shaped tower from the C&|ukyan
country by means of diagrams. Architectural objects supple-
menting the photographic illustrations of South Indian temple
architecture as far as possible have been grouped together in the
middle section of the second Hindu gallery. Sculptures and coins
are also included in the guide with an appendix on iconography.
The illustrations of Indian sculptures are mostly southern.

S. S.

REVIEWS

87

liAt 1 *# 1 *" 1 R * ma,n ‘ an ^ Excavatwu at SaihUur Duriaf Saant

1933 and 1934 {1936 38 A. 0)— By Rai Bahadur Daya Ram

Sahani. C.I.E., M.A. Diiecinr of Archaeological and Historical

Research. J.ii|>ur State. l'nce As. 8.

Possibility s of archacdogiral researches in Ibe Jaipur Stale
are vast and tins ispuit, (hough small, is a useful book of informa-
tion and deserves to be bound in a more permanent form. There
it a farce number of sites dating from the third century B.C. await-
ing exploration. The ancient site near Sadibhar was first noticed
by Colonel T.F. Hendly who found the mound to be honey combed,
apparently used for scratching, lettering or decorative patterns on
the surface of the pottery jar, ornaments of Conch bangles, orna-
menial pottery jars, terracotta-figurines among which, the figure
of an ape stated on a tripod deserves special mention, tiny copper
coins, bends of carnelin, and a pottery seal with seven impressiooa.
There is » legend in Prakrit in Brfthrai characters of the second
century. H C. of Indraiarman. In house V, fragments of pottery
repievmiug the goddess Duiga slaying a buffalo are found.
Altogether 3,460 antiquities were registered including an enormous
variety of objects but pottery, terracotta and shell objects and
mote than two thousand coins, including six silver punch-marked
coins, some gold articles, copper objects, iron objects, iron
dice, alv>ut two thousand figures and moulded plaques and reliefs
of the Gupta period belonging to the group of Umamahei-
vara- A number of coins presumably of the Mauryan kings
of (he third and second centuries B. C. have been discovered
along with a considerable number of portable antiquities in
Rairh At Bftrna]a, two complete yufias or sacrificial stone pillars
were unearthed. One of them contains an inscription of an interest-
ing feature for the use of a hitherto unknown from of the sign for
the numeral J00 consisting of an ordinary sign for 100 with an
open triangle m 'he right of its vertical stroke. It is a very valuable
tejioit win* h require- aeful attention. From the third century B.C.
the plant continued to flourish till the tenth century A. D. when
pret.um.ibly due to the drying up of ihe adjacent fresh water lake it
was deserted. With the help of coins and other materials, six
sucvevNMve strata have been located and their approximate dates

88 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

ascertained. The illustrations are plentiful and repay careful study.

S. S.

Annual Report of the Archeological Department. Baroda Slate for the
year ending with 31«t July 1938 — By Jnanaiatna Dr. Hirananda
Sistn, M.A., M.O.L., U.Litt. Director of Archeology, Baroda
State, Baroda. Price Rs. 2-8-0.

Excavations were conducted at Gobilwad timbo near Amerli
and a noteworthy find of the year was a clay die bearing the legend
Sri frailoditya in later Gupta script referring apparently to the
brother of Kharagraha I, an old ruler of Valabbhai, the Vfila of the
present times. Excavations of the Sahasralihga site at old Patna
during the year yielded interesting results. Sixty-four inscrip-
tions were copied. The earliest of them is on a short piece of
pottery written in early Br&bmi script of, the second century B. C.
The Director of Archeological Researches has been recognised
as a post-graduate teacher in Ancient Indian History and Culture
on the staff of the ^aroda College preparing graduates for the
Doctor's Degree of the Bombay University, furnishing an example
to the other universities in this matter of research in Indian
History and Culture. Cromlechs and dolmens of various sizes
and shapes were discovered during the year. The date of
the cromlechs would be important as we find a rusty iron sword
and an iron dagger here amongst other things. It is interesting
to note that attempts are being made to get the people of the
State to interest themselves in Archaeology.

S. S.

The Progress of Archeology in India During the Past Twenty-five
Year*.— By Rao Bahadur K. N. Dikshit. (for depart mental use.)
Mr. DIKSHIT. Director-General of Archaeology for India, has
published for departmental use this small, handy and useful bro-
chure on the progress of archaeology in India during the past
twenty-five years, under the headings of excavations, museums,
conservation, epigraphy, numismatics, archaeology in Indian
States and publications. Archaeology in the present century is due

REVIEWS

to the determined ••nsrgy and love of antiquity of Lord Curxoo
who initialed measures for the preservation of ancient moouments.
The Director-r.enoral df Archaeology in India, Sir John Mars
chall devoted n life of arduous toil to epigraphtcal studies, for
the preservation of archaeological monuments, for the establish-
ment and development of museums and for the introduction
of systematic excavation in India but, as Mr. Dikshit remarks, till
1912 real work in this directioo could not proceed even beyond the
birth of Huddha. New light on ancient civilization was thrown by
the diftt-r ivories at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in 1924, quickly
transforming the general conception of Indian archaeology,
heralding a new boom period. Tbe pre-historic survey of Sind
provided scope for research vast in proportion and enterprising
in the re-ults which it yielded. Sir Aurel Stein lias provided us a
treasure -house of Central Asian antiquities. Indian monuments are
preserved carefully from the vandalism of visitors. The discovery
of the Maski rock edict of AsOka revolutionised the hitherto current
DOtiun-. uid fixed the identity of AsOka with dBvlnlrapfiya
Priynd-u-irfija. Pusyamitra Scnlpati the founder of the Sunga
dynasty n mentioned tu have overthrown the Maurya supremacy
by uii inscription on a stone slab at the door of a temple at Ayodhya
discov v re.l in 1924. The Nagart inscription in the Udaipur State
testifies to the prevalence at an early date in the pre-Christian times
of the worship of Sathkar?a|>a and VasudOvn The eailiest known
lithic leiord in Kharo§tlii is a relic casket of Menander, the
well-known Indo-Greek Buddhist sovereign who lived in the second
tenuity ff.C. A very remarkable epigraph of 1927. the earliest
inscription dated in the Vikrama Era, records the performance of
the S asthiritra sacrifice by one Sakeigupaguru. The inscriptions
front NagSrjunakonda bearing known dates and kings furnishes
vei v valuable additional information confirming the adherence of
Brihm mica] rites on the part of the males and ladies of the royal
houNe. \ copper plate of the VBktfaka queen throws a decisive
light on i lie Vaktyaka chronology suggesting that Dtvagupta was
anothei name of the Gupta sovereign Chaodragupta II. Dravidiau
epigratJiy is a specialised branch and contains over 15,000 stone
inscriptions, copied and reported, making a contribution to our

90 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE M YTHIC SOCIETY

knowledge of aQci«ot South Indian history, political, economical, social
and religious very far reaching and wide in its extent. The genealogy
of the Southern Pall&vas has been fixed. The epigraphical
publications are of considerable value. Indo-Muslim epigraphy
is given in the lipigraphia Indo-Mosleraica. The study
embracing coins belonging to the second century A.D. onwards
has made considerable progress. In Indian States, Hyderabad has
earned the giatitude of the artistic world by its treatment of the
frescoes of Ajanta and its conservation of monuments. In Mysore,
enormous work has been done since the formation of the Archaeolo-
gical Department in 1890, perhaps one of the earliest and the most
systematic of its kind in India. Likewise in Gwalior, Baroda, Jaipur
and other States, important archaeological work has been under-
taken along with periodical stock-taking.

S. S.

The State Moieem. Pedekkettai ; and A Report on the working of the
State Museum, Podokkottai. for Fasli 1349 — (July 1, 1939 to
June JO. 1940).

THE State Museum, Pudukkottai, which was established iD 1886
has published a report on its working. Considerable additions
have been made during the year under report. A waste flake of
cherty-flint marking an artifact of the pre-historic sculpture and
some paintings and coins were added. The Jaina cave temple at
Sittannavasal had its paintings cleaned. Paintings were found at
Tirunayam Siva temple of the seventh century suggesting and
confirming our old belief that Paliava cave temples generally
contained paintings. Two new inscriptions have been noticed
during the year under report.

S. S.

Poach Marked Coins frem Taxila— By Mr. H. C. Walsh, c.s.I.,
M.A. (Retd. I.C.S.) and A Heard of Silver Patxh-Marked Coins

from Purnea — By P. N. Bhattacbaryya- (Memoits of the
Archmological Survey of India Nos. 59 and 62 respectively. Price
Rs- 24-10-0 or Sh. 38 and Rs. 5-6-0 or Ss/i. 6tf. respectively).
The first is an examination of a hoard of nearly thirteen
thousand coins found in the Bhir mound at Taxila. Mr. Walsh

rk views

91

atyg that there is no scieiiiilir rhssilicntion of the punch -marked
coin*, because of 1)10 punch-marked roin* liearing the same fixed
group of mark* ami therefore coti'liiuling an identical coinage
occuiing in both rectangular and totiod form* and also

because of the difference in the number of the marks on
the reverse i-nng merely an indication of the length of
lime that the lenticular coin bad been in active circulation. Hence
any classification based on the fixed groups of the marks on their ob-
verse i° iniili.- y dependent on and differs from their serial order in
their plate*. I’lio object of this detailed study is to place before the
reader the a> iml coins so that he may draw his own inferences and
arrive at ins own conclusions which can be tested independently.
One class of -mas bears a group of five marks on the obverse.
There «- .imnhe, class of early punch-marked coins which bear only
four mark* on the obverse found in an area suggesting their connec-
tion with the ancient pre-Mauryan kingdom of Kosala. The
general ■ huracteristics of the punch -marked coins are mentioned
on p. 4 . The punch-marked coins came into curreocy in India
from about the second millenium before the Christian era having an
imleperuUmi origin. V. A. Smith says that the fact that they
have been found in one of the very ancient earthem tumuli at
Launya -X.odangarh in Champaran and in ancient tombs by the
name .1 Pnprjavakulis io Coimbatore shows that they belong to very
early mu ini t times. Some of these punch-marked coins have also been
found m Mysore. Mr. Hemmy has attempted to sliow that
the pmii li marked coins agree with the indigenous Indus system of
weight. Tuere was public coinnge issued by authority denoted
in ti« ll.it pieces of silver and copper which are marked with
tanou* dm ices impressed on them with a punch and which
fuinu-.i the iiarliest coinage of India. The silver corns were cut off
a sheet or netal with a chisel and similarly the copper ones off a
thicker i*«t differing from the earliest coins of Asia-Minor and
Green- which were a globule of metal specially cast for the purpose,
impressed with a punch. They are oblong, square, oval or round in
shape known by the names of K&rtfpaiui, Kuhapana, dhara*a and
The Jlitakas also *peak of the punch-marked coins being
cui icnt m the life-time of the Buddha thus carrying ihem back to

92 QUARTLBRY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

600 B.C. Tl»c silver must have been imported from tbo West.
The marks on the reverse of these coins are different. The marks
on the coins would be royal or state marks and not marks of indivi-
dual money changers or bankers as remarked in the Arthasistra.
Coins would also appear to bear the royal marks as well as the
separate marks indicating special coinage. One mark represents the
state or local government, one the place wliere the coin was struck
and perhaps one a religious mark recognising the presiding deity.
Animals borne on puch marked coins suggest early Dra vidian
civilization indicating the lahnanamt and the totems.

The punch-marked coins from Purnea which were brought
to light in 1913 were enveloped in a mass of conglomerate lying in
the bed of a small river which had been scoured by water. They
were cleaned under the supervision of the late Mr. R. D, Banerji
and 1,703 are selected from 2,873, and they are broadly divided into
three classes. Only one coin belongs to the first class. The
second contains all which have one regular stamp and one or two
counter marks on the reverse. Coins belonging to class III have
got numerous small punches on the reverse but none of them have
any connections with the obverse marks and this class is divided
into several groups comprising numerous varieties. The reveise
and obverse symbols and tbe references have been given in detail in
both the reports to aid tbe reader for study and identification.

S. S.

Annual Reports on Seuth Indian Epigraph, for the years ending with 3 1 it
Mnrch 1936 and 31*t March 1937.— Published by the Manager
of Publications, Delhi. Price Rs. 5-8-0 or 8*/r. 6 d. and
Rs. 7-8-0 or llsfc. 6tf. respectively.

The propaganda for the preservation of scluptures and
inscriptions has borne fruit in many cases and a sentimental regard
for the old habit of applying chunam and colour wash to valuable
monuments is being gradually abandoned. It is difficult to say
whether white or colour wash of monuments have been of
considerable disadvantage though its removal disfigures the image.
In Agnigundala in the Vinnkond* Taluk. Guntur District, was a

Kli VIEW S

93

big dolmen m a lielil composei! ui huge unhewn r<x:ks and in
another village were found ancient buuais confirming Sewell’s
Information about the existence o( dolmens in ilus village (List of
Antiquities. Vol. 1. p. 67). In Xstgavi in the Gadng Taluk and

Agadi in tie Haven Taluk of the Bombay Karnfttic are
found traditions lelatiog to NSg&rjuna for whom there is
actually a temple in Nagavi, whereas the forest of Agadi is
largely associated with him and abound* in stone circles and
burials of pre-historic times. Tho Jamadagni-Reouka cult is
popular unong a section of the non- Brahmins in the Kodkan
and Kuru*taka regions. Banavksi the centre of Buddhist and Jaina
cultures in pre-Christian and early Christian eras in the North
Kanara district is advised to be marked out for excavation as
likely to yield Important finds. One of the earliest inscriptions in
Prtkrit belongs to king Viphukafc-Chutukullnanda SfttakaibQi.
(Lauder'S List of Brthmi Inscriptions, No. 1186. B. K. No. 123).
The Madras Museum plate* of Srikanta Cola are noticed and the
text published in the Journal of Indian History, Vol. XV. pp. 30
and 255ff and commented on. Hiranya liairn in which the gift village
was situated in the MH&pSxju plate* must have included the
northern and western parts of the Ndlore district. The rfflfxa
was api*rently named after the clan Hira^yakos who are mentioned
in the N§g*rjunakop<Ja Prakrit epigraphs under the name
Hnatftnaka. A copperplate grant of Vlra-NopSmba Chakravartin,
coming from the DharwAr district is spurious forming an. addition
to the forgeries of the period. A provisional genealogy of the
Eastern Gang as is made from the Tekkali plates of Anantavarman,
of I )4v5ndravarroan, but the correctness of the genealogy will
depend upon future discoveries though every attempt is made
to verify existing records. S&mba-vitaya is identified with the
modern village of Palagara of the Bobbili taluk. The influence
of Tamil culture in the temple life of the Telugu country is
mentioned as being due to the influx of Tamilian ideas with
this Telugu tract coming in the wake of the fusion of CMukyan
and C6(a crowns in the person of the C*lukya-C0)a king
Kuldauega Cdla I. Tamilian influence spread to the Eastern
Ganga country also as a result of Ctkjagatyga's father R*)artja*8

94 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE M YTHIC SOCIETY

marriage with RBjasundari, the daughter of RBjendta-CO|a whose
conquest of the Gangs country must have laid the foundation for
the coming together of the Cola and Ganga royalties and
cultures. Some inscriptions in Chidambaram show that hinds
were purchased by the donors not in their own name from the
original owner nor in the name of the temple to which the
endowment was made but in the name of some different individual,
apparently because the donor liked to be anonymous. A record of
MBravarman Sundara Paprjya I refers to a Hoysaja invasion of
the Tamil country apparently corresponding to 1239 when Vim-
Someivara was the Hoysala king for he styles hims«lf as the
uprooier of the Papdyas or the elevator of the race having

been hostile to the PBpdyas in the first instance and having become
their friend and relation later being referred to a* m am ad i gal.
Appendix E gives a list of stone inscriptions in the Bombay
KarnBtak copied during the year 1935-36 and the information is
welcome. Number 21 a herostone built into the wall of Lakfme-
•vara taluk office refers to the mourning of the people over the
death of Kampila and Sidila-Bomma aud mentions DiJJi, whereas
the fourth slab in the same place refers to a K&lacurya king
(sari) kfcma, the year being apparently 1179 A.D.

In the report for 1937 is included the notice of a Siva temple at
Madugala containing grey granite pillats bearing carvings of a half-
lotus design as in Buddhist marble pillars and having short ins-
criptions in the archaic script of the period rauging between the
third and the seventh centuries A.D. apparently brought from
elsewhere and fixed there. The VBliyampotti hill near TepkBsi in
the Tirunelvcli district contains old bunal-urns and other objects.
At Vlyalplj in the Chittoor district were found well-preserved pre-
historic stone circles and oblong burial chambers in the centre
formed by slabs. Pre-historic remains were also found in abun-
dance in several villages of the Punganoor taluk. At Rep (Alt in
the Gontur district stone cists were found. Among the rock-cut
temples at Kuggakkudi in the Tiruppattur taluk of the Ramnad
district, the earliest inscription found in cave no. 2 is of
Vatteluttu label of about the eighth century A.D. (Number thirty-
seven of 1909 giving the name of the shrine as Machili chchuram).

RRVIISWS

95

The cave temple at I’il|aiy4rpat»i which is two miles Irom that
place (Kunn^nkkmjl) has an early inscription of about the seventh
century A.D. The temple is different from that of the generality
of the rock-cut temples of these parts. About seventeen miles
from Tirupputtur at Tirukkalakkudi are five natural cave tomples.
In groeral appearance they bear a marked resemblance to tbe
rock caverns of Madura from which BtHhmi inscriptions of about
the socood century B.C. were copied testifying to their having
served as winter resorts of the Jama and Buddha monks of those
times. The rock-cut KakOjanatha temple on the hill has sculptures
of Agartya and Pulastya. In Cfll»v*n<iipurani there are antiquities
of the lenth and eleventh centuries A.D. The KOyil or PeriyakOyil.
or the temple par excellence has been the loadstar of the Vaispava
spiritual aspirations Irom quite an early past. The Srlrangam
temple belonging to the class of the Uttambttama class of temples
containing a range of seven piaharas running round the garbhagfha
with separate subsidiary shrines for all the minor parivUnitlevalas
as prescribed in the Agamas is described as being sculpturally
rather poor, while iconograpliically the temple offers a wide scope
lot study, having an almost complete gallery of images for worship
according to the VaifQvSgama. Tbe earliest inscription collected
during the year comes from Gurazbla in the Palnad taluk of
the (iuntur disttict. written in Br&hmi characters of the third
century A.D. and couched in a local dialect of the Prakrit of the
period. Purisadata recorded the gift of land called Bhiduka
made by the lord of Halmapdra to the Buddha for the increase of
his life on the thirteenth day in the sixth fortnight of griima.
Another Prakrit inscription in Brihmi characters is secured at
RfiQtAla. Mflll visa was a name lor an ancient Buddhist centre
and it was held in great sanctity by the Buddhists all over the world
in the early centuries of the Christian era. An inscription of the
third century B.C. found at the AmarSevara temple at Amarivati
in Brfchmi characters records a gift made by a householder
to the mahicbetiya, evidently, the makacheliya of the other
inscription at Amarivati and MOliviea in this also refers to the
Buddhist temple at Amarivati. This inscription furnishes tbe
earliest epigraphical reference to Mali visa which probably lent

96 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

its sanctifying name to Mahachetiya of the place. In number 293
which bears a date in 6aka 1165, it is stated that ParipCrnasiva, son
of Vi4v€dvara a pupil of Dharmaliva made a gift of land for the
merit of his father and he figures as a donor in two other
epigraphs. Viiveevarativa is called the guru of Gapapati-
diva Maharaja. Number 94 of 1917, the Malakapuram inscrip-
tion says that the KAkatCya Gajapati was initiated into the
Saiva faith by this diAyoguru. The lineage of Saivu teachers of the
GOl&kl-maiha from SadbhAva-Sambbu to Visv&Bvara«iva covering
seven generations with a short interval between Varna-Sambhu and
Klrtuambhu is now added the name of Pariptlrnasiva, son of
VisvMvara who figures for the first time in the inscriptions of Saka
1165 and Saksi 1174. It appears that Visv&vAraclya had another
son by name dftotaSambu who also figures as dinta-Siva in a
record number 272 of 1905 of Vijayagap<jagOf*la. in which be is
called the disciple of Rfcjagurudfcva, evidently Viiv8*vara-diva
presiding over the famous GOlkl-matha, whose spiritual influence
extended over three lakhs of villages. No. 307 belonging to
Rudrambi is dated Saka 1 193 and refers to Uttama diva as the son
of Rftjagurudova apparently Vievfcvara diva, himself, drikaptha-
Siva apparently of the GOlki-Ma^ha figures in the record of Rudra-
d8va dated in Saka 1192 and 1193 (Nos. 245 and 188 of 1905) and
it is not known in what way he had connection with the Uttama-
divan figuring iu number 307 of daka 1193, apparently Vis vis vara
was the dlkaSguru of the KAkatiyas. The teachers of the GOlki-
Matha appeared to have moved to south India some time early
commanding considerable influence in the Telugu country at least
from the time of the teacher Dharma-Sivn, pupil or Vimala-Siva,
who is said to have built a Ma^ha at Tripurantakam in Saka
1169. An inscription from ValliyapOr belonging to PexufijingadSva
confirms the surmise of the late Mr. Venkayya as early as 1906.
A Brahman merchant belonging to the foreign sftvfisi-vyapiri commu-
nity called Sakala-Bhatta, son of AhaJc BhatJa, of the Skkala-gOtra
figures in No. 70 dated the eighth year of K&man&tha as the donor
of a flower garden to God Rangauttha. The s&v&sift arc mentioned
in the inscriptions of the Bombay- Karaitak as having migrated
from Kfiamlra, but they do not figure there as merchants.

REVIEWS

97

Dtvaifcya Ii of Vijayanagara received a complaint of the high-
handed action of tiie office i» and he enquired into it and checked it.
The material i» nci unml ring for the history of the South Indian
dynastic* and we hope that under the patronage of the govern-
ments and the univeisities of these parts a chair for history will be
instituted for this purpose in each of these universities.

S. S.

Proceeding! of the Ninth All-India Oriental Conference, Trivandrum
December 1937. — Published under the auspices of the Govern-
ment of Travancore.

This huge volume contains a mine of useful information concerning
the Oriental Literature of India. The General President of the
Confeu in e was L>r. F. W. Thomas, the well-known Orientalist.
Ninctv institutions sent delegates; the proceedings continued for
four days ; and the Numismatic Society of India also held its
meenngs at the same time. The work of the conference and its
discussions were being broadcast. Though literary scholarship
and culture in this scientific age may be said to have somewhat
fallen nn evil days, it is most gratifying to record that rulers and
governments have generously continued their enthusiastic and
benev olent patronage and all possible financial assistance, without
which ii could not possibly flourish. Religion, architecture,
ait, painting, sculpture and drama in India as elsewhere are true
expressions of the sciences and philosophy of the people and
6amk ara ami Agastya toured northern and southern India and
Indian culture spread all over the world. The Oriental Conference
'binds fin the exposition of true Indian culture with a view to that
inuci unity which, may we hope, shall transcend diversities of blood,
colour, In iguage. dies., manners, sect and religious experience ?

S. S.

Bksgjlpur Report— By Francis Buchanan. Published by the Behar
and Orissa Research Society, Patna. Pnce Rs. 12.

An .u count of the district of Bhagalpur by Buchanan published
in ns entirety brings to a close this endeavour of the Behar and

98 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Orissa Research Society initiated in 1916. Dr. Buchanan visited
this district in 1810-11. There was no place in India which
Buchanan did not visit and of which he did not give a detailed
description concerning the topography, architecture, religion, general
civic condition of the people with economic, historical and tradi-
tional accounts available. The Society cannot but be thankful to
the Patna Law Press which printed the report free of charge and
to many others who have helped in its publication. Referring to
the division of fifty-six territories of the Bharatakhanda found in
Buchanan’s account of Mysore he says that what is given in the
Mysore report is adopted by the Bramins of the south, but in
different parts of the country the division seems to differ greatly.
Saktisanggam Tantra used in Behar differs very essentially from
that of the south, twenty-three of the divisions mentioned in each
list being unnoticed in the other. The cosmographies of the Hindus
have undergone many changes. Svarodaya is more ancient than that
detailed in the fifth chapter of the firibhagavat, is said to have been
originally composed by God 6iva but was revealed to mankind
by Narapati and in it this Bharatakhanda is represented as occupy-
ing the back and members of the tortise, instead of the southern
corner of Jambudvipa, the whole of which according to Bhagavat,
occupies only the centre of the iodise’* back, the extension of
knowledge in the time of Vyasa having rendered the old doctrine
totally untenable. Dr. Buchanan gives detailed information culled
from the Asiatic Researches and says that there were at
least seven kings of the family of Kama who were the most
powerful Indian Princes of their time, who began to reign
at no long inteival after the destruction of the dynasty of
Candragupta enjoying a most extensive sovereignity until the
middle of the seventh century in this district and contributing
to Magadha becoming the most eminent province in India.
Many of these traditions, as well as historical records men-
tioned by Buchanan are inaccurate and misleading but considering
the time when he worked at them one cannot but admire
the knowledge and enthusiasm winch inspired and throughout
characterised Dr. Buchanan's labours. The Kama Rfcjas were
undoubtedly Andhras belonging to the country near Hyderabad.

REVIEWS

99

Two hot springs of Sltakunda four mil«s east from Mungger
are mentioned. A sect of diva-Ntityaoa is also mentioned
by some books. They consider 6iva N»r*yan omnipresent and
always existent and as an iocamation lot the instruction of
mankind. The information is detailed on every matter available
at the ti ne and useful to students of early history.

S.S.

Eclipse Cull ia the Vsdas. Bible aa i Koran— By Dr. R. Shama
S’t-tri, B.A., Ph.D. Chamundi Extension, Mysore. Price
Ur. 1.

This s ppleroent to Drapsa by Dr. R. Shama Sastri who needs no
inliodiK tion to our readers is to be welcomed. The vidic ritual begins
with Kicrificns on New and Full Moon days with a fast on the
fount ruth and twenty-ninth lunar days. Samvatsara, Parivatsara.
Autism ara, Idvatnraand Idivatsaru the cycle of five luni solar years
with two intercalary months is one fourth of the big cycle of
nineteen to twenty luni-solar years with eight intercalary mooths.
This c vule is called Ayodhya. To distinguish the eight intercalary
months :rom ordinary months the v«dic poets give dill? rent names
to thr olar deities as they were supposed to preside over the
inicn .1 ry months. Dhaia, Aryama, Mitia, V.trup.t, Ainia, Bhaga,
I ml i .« .nd Mftrianda were the names of the sons of Aditi. In the
pn-i.ni: to his work Dr. Shama Sastri describes in detail how the
cy Ur »' seven son-like suns called the Adilyas, the number of each
cycle, the number of days each-cycle comprises and how the numbers
aie i ?fei red to. The contents of each of the four chapters are given
in detail and in the instructive introduction Dr. Shama Sastry
refer*. m the topic of the eclipse and commences with the Arapyaka
passage and ends with Savitf’s war with Sam barn in order to show
how eclipses arc generally descrihed in the Vedas. The VSdic
eciips? cycle is of one thousand days. In Chapter i I mysticism
ihiii i ers is explained and the birth of the Asvms and epic myths
are givt-o in chapter III. In Chapter IV the Vgdas. the Bible and
the O'ran are referred to establishing that the thought and feeling
of mankind are uniform all over the world. Science and religion
two special forms of thought and a close examination of the

100 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

hislory ol all these religions seems to suggest a single or uniform
source of thought underlying religious ideals. The age of the
Vfclas is located at 3101 B.C. the information being furnished
by Adhisnmvatsara cycle of thirty-three lunar years called thirty-
three Gods. The study is interesting but rather difficult and
Dr. Shiima Sastry has done his best to expound the information
contained in the vfidic texts.

S.S-

Kamsavabo — Edited by Dr. A. N. Upadhye, M.A., D.utt. Rajaram
College, Kolhapur.

Kamsavaho, a prakft poem in the classical style of Rama Patji-
v4da, is edited for the first time with various readings, introduction
and notes by Dr. Upadhye. The author was a genuine poet with
a confident grip over his expression, who inherited the spirit of
classical Sanskrit authors, though belonging to the closing period of
pi*knt literature. He has also written a commentary on the
Prtkfta Prakiaa of Vararuci. The slltras of Vararuci have helped
the editor in overcoming the errors found in an early manuscript.
Papivgdas or Nambiars form a caste in Malabar whose hereditary
profession is to help the Cakkiars or the traditional actors of
Kerala in the staging of Sanskrit plays. Pa^ivtda or Nambiar
was to play on the drum called Mizhavu and the drum was called
paQivtdya giving rise to the caste. It appears that women of the
Nambiar caste took the female parts in the plays, the Kflttu and
Kaitiyfitam. The male and female members of the family were
well-versed in Sanskrit. The author is a eighteenth century poet
whose works are found in three languages, Sanskrit, Marathi and
Prikft. The present work is composed to celebrate the incident
of the slaying of Kamsa by Kr?W, the story, apparently, being
taken from the Bhagavatam. The poet's originality and scholar-
ship are evideot in the dramatic effect produced. Post-pi*krt was
a living language in the eighteenth century. The prakft dialect
of Kaifisavaho is said to be the Maharlstrian, the author himself
belonging to the decadent period of Prlkyl literature. The editor
believes that the author has added chftya to make his work intelligible
even to those who do not possess a first-hand knowledge of Prtkrt.

S. S.

rtSF/EWS

101

Tbe Nember of Rasas — By Dr. V. Ragbavau, m.a , ph.D. Published
by the Adyar Library, Adyar, Madras. Price Rs. 3.

Dk. \N in this work draws his data from unpublished

manuscript a** readily as he does from published works. As
pivi. says in his Foreword, the author has devoted

much time t«i this study and his knowledge of the Rasas is so
vast ihitl hi* opinion is of special value and deserves the careful
attention n< ^.-Jiolars. Some great thinkers hold that there is one
rav* . other* maintain that the rasas are many : tire usual view is
that tlieie are eight rasas or nine if d&nta is added. All these
views air examined by the author with the admissibility of fl*nta
as the mill h rasa in a comprehensive treatment both from the
histoiK id and aesthetic standpoints. Asvaghosa*s view that 6&nta
fountl »*\ pm ssioo in literature quite early is supported by
Prof. Hmyanoa. The conception of rasa though dealt with
chiefly in tekitioo to poetry in this work, generally furnishes the
criterion by which the worth of all forms of fine arts may be
judged Rasa is the very soul of poetry and drama. This subject
nwmci wa* 01 (finally published in the form of articles in the Journal of
Onont.ii lvV»»*rch and Dr. Ragliavan has done well in publishing
theM; aether in the form of a book. A synopsis precedes the work
wlirrp il .-.uhent of danta is mentioned with controversies over it and
some pc* u »r and original views on it. The discussion of the
several Miiftyi bhavas proposed for the Santa rasa arc also
di^ ussud. The Adyar Library is to be complimented on this
excellent w«»rk.

S. S.

Mother and Mother's Thousand Natnes-Nai and Mai SahatraoUna.

Vol. I. Parts I & II— By Markand R. Dholakia. Founder and

President. Mother's Lodge, Poona. Price R*. 2-8*0 or 3s/i. 6 d.
Makkanp R. Dholakia is the Founder and President of the
Mother's L<xlge, an institute of members— sisters and brothers —
whose very first religious belief Is that we are, one and all, children
of the same Almighty God conceived as mother. Mother is, of
course, sexless and is the same as father. Mother is the ocean of
infinite lift* and free without name or form. The basic belief of the

102 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Mother'* Lodge is unity of all religions. Its religious practices
are ethical with emphasis on the cardinal points of morality.
Liberty and freedom are objects dearly to be achieved and religion
should be made to shed non-essentials and man should be free
to select his own motto of progress and serve for his salvation.
Religion should not be the cause of domination or prejudice but
should be the embodiment of all that is good in everybody. The
principle of the ledge is love and service. Like Essentialism this
also contains considerable information on what is useful, what is
necessary and what is to be. Mother is sarvamangaja, sorvasva-
rflpipl and sarvasvatantripl. Her thousand names are all familiar
to us and the Mai and Mai Sahasranima are given with increasing
emphasis in this beautiful work.

S. S.

Economic Development. Vol. II— By Beooy Kumar Sarkar. Price Rs. 6.
The Sociology of Races, Cultures ind Bumaa Progress-By Dr. Benoy
Kumar Sarkar. Price R 9 . 7. Published by Messrs. Chukerbcrtty
Chatter jee ft Co., Ltd. 15, College Square, Calcutta.

Problems in Politics— By Messrs. M. V. Krishna Rao, b.t. and
H. Krishna Rao, U.A. Published by the authois. University
of Mysore, Mysore. Price Rs. 4.

ECONOMIC Development volume I by the same author first pub-
lished in 1926 deals with post war (1914-18) world movements in
commerce, economic legislation and industrialism and technical
education. Volume II is concerned with comparative Industrialism
and its equation with special reference to economic India and it is
dedicated to Ranade and Dutt, the pioneer economists of Modern
India. The principles of control over foreign insurance companies,
the remaking of the Reichsbank and the Banque de France, the
Bank capitalism of young Bengal, the railway industry and com-
merce of India in international railway statistics, traces of ration-
alization in Indian business enterprise and the world-crisis in its
bearing on the regions of the second and the first industrial
revolutions are discussed.

In the Sociology of Races, Cultures and Human Progress, the
second of tho book under review herein, we have a study in

RRVIKWS

103

the relations between Asia and Europe and America which dial long-
ed Asia for supremacy for about a century. Asia accepted the
challenge in Purl Arthur and since then from the military and
scientific point <>l view there has been development in the Fat East.

World <■ tents during these few years ate ever before the thinking
publi' and v.c do out know where we arc, where we arc going and
what troubles and tribulations aro io store for us. Hence, it would bo
difficult ro prognosticate practical relations from a study in theory
of our economic or political problems. Until the rule of law and
peace on earth are established both individually and as a state as
sac rnsaoct little can be gained. Mere study has no chance of life
and backward civilizations and primitive races and culture will
be driven to the wall. It is therefore necessary to study world
problems from the point of view of an international family with an
international background and the nationalisation of the mam
industries of the state. The individual liberty of man and freedom
to think and act even with recognised restraints is receiving many
a hard knock and political psychology is changing the world.
The Nazi, with his totalitarian outlook, joins hands with the
Racist and both together hobnob with the doctrines of Karl Mar*
transposed into a working system by Lenin and his more practical
successor Stalin, the President of the Soviet Union. All Europe is
threatened by the Hitlerite doctrine and the Jew is being turned
out oi Europe. Asia is shaken to its roots by It. Religion apart,
humanity has never suffered as it is now suffering from the days of
the Atvas. The ravages caused by two wars of this magnitude
within one generation cannot be made up even in a century
and the international organizations will have to suit themselves
to lihu changing needs of the hour. These problems are well
discussed in Problems and Politics. The works before us are very
helpful for the pursuit of these studies.

S. S.

South Indian Celebrities. VoL II Sketches— by K. M. Balasubra-
m.tnyam, Madras.

I'll IS volume contains sketches of eight well-known celebrities of
modem India with several of whom we can claim personal acquain-
tance. Pen-pictures are well-done and we hope that before long the

104 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

author will add many more scholars and statesmen in South India
to his list, ej. Sir Mima M. Ismail, the well-known industrially-
minded Dewan of Mysore. Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Aiyar, the boldest
and the most discussed Dewan of Travancore and certainly a great
Statesman, the Rftja of Chettinnd who founded the Annamalai
University, Sir K. V. Reddy the present Vice-Chancellor of that
university and others are given. In his account of Sir K. V. Reddy
the author is not very fair when he says that being a great man he
has the honour of the province but he has no claim for the gratitude
of posterity. It may be that his views do not appeal to the coo-
gressites but that is no reason to doubt his patriotism, his loyalty
to India or the honesty of his motives and acts. Likewise.
Satyamurthi the most successful politician, a brilliant and beautiful
orator, is certainly not the bully in South Indian politics as
mentioned. J wish the author will be more charitable even in his
caricatures. There is too much of parody in the author’s writing.
While I disagree with many of Satyainurti's views I dissociate
myself from the description given of him in the work that he has
not got capacity or that he is a camelion with the ability of diverse
executive views. Likewise the pen-pictures of the Raja of Robbili,
Patro, Sir Mahomad Usman and the Maharaja of Pithapuram
require careful editing. Such careless publications do no good to
the author or the public.

S. S.

Rethinking Christianity in India— Published by A. M. Sudarisanam,
8. Bench Road. Kilpauk, Madras. Price Rs. 1-4-0.

A series of interesting essays resulting from an enquiry into the
problemsconfronting Christianity in India is contained in this work.
Mr. Chenchiah with a personal knowledge and experience of the
Hindu faith, discusses the relation of Christianity and non-Christian
faiths, with particular reference to Hinduism and Mr. Chakkarai
another equally distinguished personage re examines the con-
ception of the church as seen in the life and teachings of
Christ and estimates the reason for Hinduism maintaining its
vitality. The implications of the proposed scheme of union, the
fundamental principles to be safeguarded in Indian Christianity,

REVIEWS

105

the place the ii-tam in the spiritual life of India, tlie survey of
modern religious movements in India, the call of the Indian national
situation to Christianity and the Indian Christian community are
among the other subjects dealt with. The World Missionary Con-
/errnce held at Tambaram gave an impetus to this movement. The
wilier- stand bv the main principles enunciated in this book
and rcwni-e the upeemacy of the personality of Christ in the
religious evolution of race and perpetual claim with the Christian
evangel in order to function normally in India until it is rescued from
the e clesiastical over-growth that has come from the West and
addled to the great religious heritage of this ancient land of
iehi.oi.ns. The unessential foreign and secular elements which at
pre-onc dominate Indian Christianity should be shed and prolonged
nerion- investigation is necessary. There is no doubt that the
sp»r ill al adventure of Christianity and the Bible influenced
Hinduism considerably, and l>as given rise to the modern
devrl.ipraenu of Hinduism like the Aryasamaj and the Rama-
kii'h'i.i Mission. The assault of Islam and Christianity on Hinduism
brought reaction on Hindu reformers and Theosophy also made its
compilation for the regeneration of Hinduism. The social abuses
m-i .1- unsuccessful challenge at tlie hands of the Government
in ti.ii - opposition by the great religious reformers mid in later days
hv rho Indian National Congiess. Rnnade, Kale, Gandhi,
K.mamohao Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen, Vivekan.mda and Annie
Heumt have rendered yoeman service in this behall for their uplift.
Ki.igion is a matter of the mind and it should not be confused with
sui ial customs. So long as the more conservative elements will be
nine to resist the forces of progress other religion* would have
sonie hold on us but once the difference is made up with the
V;, nasraina dharma of the people and the other points are settled,
Hinduism will have a stronghold which it would be difficult to
Ch.dleoge. We have to establish new values for life instead of
propagating the traditional ones- If a Christian is a good Iodian
and the Muhammadan is a good Indian, the Hindu, the Muham-
madan and the Christian join together in the same political shrine.
In the modern political life and in the modern international life,
there is no reason why anybody professing any religion need be

106 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

afraid of being elbowed out. Ours is a common culture and there
is no reason why any body should be afraid of that culture being
affected in the least because of political changes being envisaged in
the future.

S. S.

TAMIL

KrisUvauMB T* minim (Q flmjuuQpib pd>Qfu>) —By M. S. Ven-
kataswami, 59, Karoeesvercr Street, Mylapore, Madras.

THE theme of this brochure is the contribution of the Europeans
and the Christians to the Tamil literature. The padrt, European
missionary, comes in for praise as being the father of the Tamil
prose and journalism, as the first to bring out the Tamil printed
books, as the translator of books on western science and general
knowledge into Tamil, as the lexicographer and so on. The
Christian vocabulary is next shown as being enriched with
Biblical proverbs which it must be said are not current among the
Tamil Hindus. The author gives a brief sketch of the lives of
some European and Indian Christian Tamil scholars of repute.
Within a brief space of two years from its first edition the book
has undergone another editioo, a fact speaking highly of its
popularity among the Tamil speaking public and in particular
of the Tamil Christians of India and Ceylon.

P. S. L.

TELUGU

Ksnnnyogama — Published by Sri Ramakrishna Muth,

Mylapore, Madras. Price Re. 0-12-0.

THOUGH some decades have elapsed since he attained Samftdhi,
Svami Vivekananda is still remembered as the first Hindu to carry
the torch of the Vfidanta to the West. His lectures in Euglish on
KarmaySga succinctly put forth the Hindu conception of salvation
through Karina, meritorious deeds. The Madras branch of the
Ramakrishna Mission has rendered them into Telugu for the
benefit of the Telugu-speaking public and added foot-note* of
great help to understand the text. The translation faithfully
follows the spirit of his message without sacrificing it for the sake
of language.

P- S. L.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY

PRESENTED BY

Govefnmttit •f Mysore :

*** A *< 8 i«i *«'*%- Publicity Pamphlet No. 49.

Bv <). N. Lingaiya, d.a. (Hons).

*** MV,»«a-_w» Publicity Pamphlet

No. SO. By C.K. Venkata ramiah.

Smithso-tiaa Institution:

Masked Medicine Societies of the Iroquois. By William
N. l emon.

The Beginnings ot Civilisation in Eastern Asia— By Carl
Whiiing Bishop.

The Botany and History ol Zizania Aquatica L. (" Wild Rice")
By Charles E. Chambliss

Stonehenge: To-day aod Yesterday— By Frank Stevens.
o.M.n., F.S.A.

PieiiiMoric Culture Waves From Asia to America — By
I humond Janness.

Secretary, Indian Historical Records Commission :

Indian Historical Records Commission — Proceedings of
Meetings, Vol. XVII. Seventeenth Meeting held at Biirods,
December 1940.

Keeper of Records, Government of India :

Imperial Records Department (Historical Research) Rules.

A Manual ol Rules regulating access to Archives in India and
Europe.

Notes on Preservation ol Record.

University of Mysore :

*™-8 veto cKSerM^tti—By Ht Krishna Kao, m.a.

FsOicMarMS^ri — B y Benagal Rama Rao, M«A.. i-i-B. and
Paoyara Sundara S as try, Vidwan.

<****' mtt'.a* norijp — Edited by K.V. Raghavachar, U.A., B.T.

108 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

A Grammar of the Oldest Kanarese Inscriptions — By A. N.

Narasimhaiya, M.A.. L.T., Ph.D.

The Calendar for the year 1940-41-42. Volume I.

Sri Rauiakrithaa Math. Karachi;:

Continence and us Creative Power.

Society for History of French India. Pondicherry ;

Hussy in the Deccan— Translated by Dr. Miss. A. Cammiadc.
L.M. & S.

Director of Arcbmological Researches in My sore :

Annual Report. Archaeological Survey of Mysore. 1940.
Director of Archaeology, Travel core :

A Short Guide to Padmanubhapuram
Travancore Inscriptions — A Topographical List
Director of Arcbmology, Jaipur

Excavations at Rairh— By K. N. Puri.

Director of Kanoada Research, Dbarwar :

Three Lectures — By K. V. Subram.inya Iver, h a.

Annual Report of Kannada Research, Bombay, 1930-40.
Curator, State Museum. Pudukkottai .

Inscriptions in the Pudukkottai State Translated into
English by K. R. Srinivasa Atyar, ma.

Publication Committee. Dr. (Sir) C. R. Reddy CouimNnoratioa Volume :
through Messrs. C. S. Press :

Ramahnga Reddy Sastyabdapurti Commemoration Volume
Part II— Humartities.

Rauhula Aushadashram :

YagBaphalam of Mahtkavi BiiSsa.

Shri Bhagavad Gita— Edited by Rajavaidya Jivaram Halidas
Sastri.

Measrs. Maxwell Company. Lucknow :

Humayun Badshah, Vol. II— By S. K. Barter ji.

Rao Saleh C. S. Sriaivatnchari :

Tunghungia Buranji or A History of Assam. 1681-1862 A.D.

Compiled, edited and translated by S. K. Bbuyan, m.a.. B.L.
Dr. S. Krishna* warm Aiyangar Commemoration Volume.

PSES?i.P5?'T?5t > H-SeS55^SH5:

ADDITIONS TO THU LIBRARY

109

Dr K. N. V. Swirl :

Camden Miscellany — Vol. XVII.

British Consular Reports on the Trade and Politics of Latin
America 1824-26. Edited for the Royal Historical Society
by R. A. Humpreys, m.a, Ph.D., F.R.Hist.S.

I'rof. K. V. Rangaswami Aiyangar Commemoration Volume.
Dr. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar Commemoration Volume.
Autbors:

etymological and Comparative Lexicon of The Tamil
Language, Part III— By Rev. S. Gnana I'ralrasar, O.M.I.
Sriman Maliubliarata Tatparya Nirnaya — Edited By B.
Gururajah Rao.

Purchased:

Jatakadcsasmarga- -by V. Subram&nya Saatri, b.a.

The Journal of the Mythic Society is printed on
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Satindra Narayana Roy

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B. Vasudeva Murthy

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Rajascvaaaku Prof. B. Venkatanaranappa

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Rao Sahcb 0. Viswanatba Rao

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The Modi Power Printing Wort*. Sn NuaMraharaja Read. Bangalore City.

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(SJuarterlg Journal

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Vol XXXII] OCTOBER 1941 [No. 2

PROCEEDINGS OF

THE THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
MYTHIC SOCIETY. BANGALORE

6th September 1941

Sir P. S. Sivaswamv Aiybr, k.c.s.1 , c.i.e.

In llit Chair

Thi; Thiny-fir9t Annual Meeting of the Mythic Society was
belrl at the Daly Memorial Hall on Saturday, 6th September 1941,
>vuh Sir P. S. Siva9wamy Aiyer, LL.D., K.C.S.I., C.t.E. in the

Chair

A letter from RSjamantrapravina N. Modhava Rau, regretting
inabil ty to be present and wishing the function a success and
future prosperity for the Society was referred to and then the
Annual Report for the year 1940-41 was presented to the
meeting by Mr. S. Srikantaya, the General Scretary and
Treasurer.

ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1940-41
1 he Committee of the Mythic Society have great pleasure to
present you this evening a report of the Society’s activities during
the year 1940-41.

112 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Oar Patron Our beloved Maharaja His Highness 6ri Jaya
ChamarSia Wadiyar Bahadur has been graciously pleased to
consent to be the Patron of the Mythic Society-

The late Mahtrija, His Highness Sri KrisbnarSja Wadiyar
Bahadur IV, an unrivalled patron ol arts and letters, and the
Patron of the Mythic Society from its very inception passed away
on the third of August 1940, to the great sorrow of all. A
resolution of condolence was passed at the last Annual Meeting,
all members standing.

MabSrftjadhiraja Sir Bijay Chand Mahtale Bahadur, Mah&riji-
dhir&ja of Burdwan, Vice-Patron of the Mythic Society; His
Highness Sir Sri Rama Varmah. the late Mah&r&ja of Cochin,
an Honorary Member of the Mythic Society, a liberal patron of
arts and letters; Dr. Rabindranaths Tagore, the famous poet and a
great son of India, an Honorary Member of the Mythic Society ;
Prof. J. G. Fraser of the Trinity College, Oxford; Sir George
Abraham Grierson, author of the monumental work on the Linguistic
Survey of India; Sir C. Y. Chintamani, the distinguished publicist ;
Mudaliar C. Rasanayagam of Ceylon and S. Srinivasa lyangar of
Madras also passed away during the year and we tender our
respectful condolences to the members of their bereaved families.

Membership ; — The Membership of the Society has suffered
owing to war and the complications of the present international
situation. We trust that in the current year at least our members
will try to introduce more members into the Society and thus
help us to carry on our work in a more satisfactory manner.

Meetings:— Of the ordinary meetings held during the year
mention may be made of interesting lectures delivered on “Chital-
drug" by S. Srikantaya; "Some Characteristics of the Buddha
Dharma " by the Rt. Hon'ble Sir D. B. Jayatdaka, Minister of Home
Affairs, Ceylon ; and " The Antiquities of Hyderabad " by Dr. M. H.
Krishna of the Mysore University.

Finance: — The total receipts during the year including an
opening balance of Rs. 26-2-3 were Rs. 3,581-2-9. The total
expenditure was Rs- 3,674-5-6 as against Rs. 4,160-5-0 in the

THE THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING 113

previous year. The overdrafl in the Bank of Mysore, Lid. stands
at Rs- 9925-2. The Reserve Fund is stationary at Rs. 12,150.

We ate grateful to the Government of His Highness the
MahirSja of Mysore for renewing the temporary graot of Rs. 100
per month for the years 1941-42 and 1942-43. We hope and pray
that this temporary grant will be made permanent and raised to at
least Rs. 200 a month, so as lo enable us to carry on our work on
a mote satisfactory scale. We appeal to public philanthropy in
support of our activities, which arc greatly appreciated in all parts
of the world where the name and fame of Mysore are better known
day by day. Funds are required to purchase recent publications,
to pro> ide book-cases to keep the numerous volumes, to construct
a suitable structure to house the ever-growing library and to bring
the catalogue of books in the library up-to-date.

Our thunks are due to Mr. T. M. S. Subramanyam of the
Bank of Mysore, Ltd. who continues to audit the accounts of the
Society in an Honorary capacity for the past fifteen years.

Reading Room The number of visitors to the free reading room
attached to the Society continues to be steady as usual, though,
the Daiy Men*orlal Hall has been placed at the disposal of the
Government for locating the Special First Class Magistrate's Court
since the 19th of May 1941. Daily and weekly papers are placed
on the tabic while important periodicals are bound and made
available to the visitors also wlio make good use of them.

Library The Library of the Society possesses many rare and
valuab'e books on subjects of study in which we are interested.
Scholars from within the State and outside come to the Society for
study aud research work in the library. Some important books
were purchased during the year under review. The acquisition of
valuable periodicals and reports of archeological and epigraphical
departments continues. We appeal to all those interested in the
work of tiiis institution to present books and periodicals dealing
with antiquarian research to this library. We are obliged to the
Government of India; tho several Governments in India and
Burma ; the Governments of Mysore, Hyderabad. Batoda, Gwalior.
Ttavancorc, Cochin and Jaipur ; the Universities of Mysore. Madras,

114 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Calcutta, Dacca, Benares, Annaraalai, Allahabad, Patna and
Rangoon ; and to various author* and publishers, for their patronage
and for sending their publication* to the library and for review in
the Journal. Though the Hall is placed at the disposal of the
Special First Class Magistrate, books from the library are being
made available to members and other research scholars.

Jamil The Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society main-
tains the high standard set for it by its promoters. The July and
October 1940 issue* were published as usual. For the January and
April 1941 issue* is substituted the 8n Krishnaraja Memorial
Number of the Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society to the
illustrious memory of our late Maharaja, and this will be published
shortly.

We may in this connection recall the word* of the Hon'ble
Lt-Col. J. H. Gordon, C.I.E., O.B.B., C-S.I., W.C., the Hon'ble the

Resident in Mysore in his letter to the Secretary : "

the Hon'ble the Resident greatly appreciates the loyalty which has
prompted the Society to publish a Memorial Number and thank*
the Society for affording him an opportunity once more to give
expression to his appreciation of the late MahSrAja

We are grateful to the Hon'ble Lt.-Col. J. H. Gordon, C.I.E.,
O.B.E., C.5.I.. m.c., the Hon'ble the Resident in Mysore, The Rt.
Hon'ble Sir D. B. Jayalilaka, Amin-ul-Mulk Sir Mirza M. Ismail,
SachivOttama Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Aiyar, The Rt. Hon'ble Sir
Akbar Hydari, Sir V. T. Krishnamachariar, Sir Ramalmga Reddy,
Rajadharmapravina Diwan Bahadur K. S. Chandrasekhara Aiyar,
Sir Alladi Krishnaswami Aiyar, Rajasevasakta Prof. B. Veukata-
naranappa, Rajasfivasakta S. Hiriannaiya, Mr. S. Satyamurthi,
M.L.A. (Central}, Rajasflvisakta Diwan Bahadur Dr. S. Krishna-
swami Aiyangar, RijasSvAsakta Prof. B. M. Srikantia and others
for other appreciative articles and valuable contributions to the
Memorial Number.

Exchanges Among our exchanges are included most ol the
important periodicals of the world. The list is being revised from
time to time.

THE THIRTY-PIRST ANNUAL MEETING 115

Daly Memorial Hall ' The Daly Memorial Hall and the Pre-
mise continue to bo maintained in good condition. The Hall is
in constant demand by several institutions both in the city and
cantonment. The I idian Red Cross Society, Mysore State Branch,
The Society for the promotion ol Kindness to Animals and the
Universal Buddha Society were among the many institutions
which held their meetings in the premises ol the Mythic Society.
The Mysore Civil Service Examinations were also conducted in
the Daly Memorial Hall. The Special First Class Magistrate,
Bangalore, continues to conduct his onquiry and we expect the
Hall to he made available to 11 s early.

General:— We desire to congratulate most heartily our
Honorary President, the Hon’ble Lt-Col. J. H. Gordon, C.I.E.,
O.B.E.. C.3.I., M.C., the Hon'ble the Resident in Mysore, His
Highness the Gaekwad ol Baroda and His Highness the R&ja'of
Naraaingatfc and SachivOitama Sir C. P. Ramasvamy Aiyar on
the New Year and Birthday Honour* bestowed on them.

The Committee congratulates Ra)a*fivftpra»kia A. N. Ragha-
vachar, Rajasdvftprasakta Y. K. Rainachaodra Rao, RftjasSvtsakt*
B. Yenhotanaranappa on the titles conferred on them respectively
by His Highness the Mahftrftja during the Dasara Durbar and
Dr. S. Rama Iyer on the Kaisar-i-Hmd Medal awarded to him
during tho recent Birthday Honours.

We beg to express our deep debt of gratitude to His Highness
the Mah&rBja of Mysore, the Government of His Highness the
Maharaja of Mysore, the Government of India and to the
Hon’ble the Resident in Mysore for their continued sympathy and

support.

ft*

In moving the adoption of the Report, the President, Raja-
karyapravlna N. S. Subba Rao appealed for greater public’
patronage and endowments and increase in membership so that the
decrease m foreign membership may be made op and the financial
position of the Society secured. Seconded by Mr. P. S. Lakshmi-
narasu, the report was adopted unanimously.

116 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OP THE MYTHIC SOCIET\

Stateroeo* of Receipts aid Expteditare of the Mythic Society Bangalore,
for the year ending 30th June 1941

Rscaim

Expenditure

1.

SatecripiioDi :

K».

A.

1
r. .

1.

Eatablttfcmeot

Ra

A.

Resident Members...

106

0

0

Pay to Sufl

844

0

MoIduiI Member. ...

270

10

0

Electric Charges ...

108

10

Ufa Member.

30

0

0

Water Charge*

40

0

Municipal Tax

12

8

2.

Govern mem Gram* :

Cycle Accouot ...

9

3

Govt. of My ior» ...

1.800

0

0

Livery to servants ...

24

4

Govt, of My tore Lib.

Garden

79

t

Gram

300

0

0

Premises

30

0

Govt of Indi*

300

0

0

Furniture it Repairs

39

0

3.

Imereti tad Dividend..

502

2

0

Electric Accessories

11

14

4.

Stitt

78

6

0

3.

Advertisement

8

0

0

2.

Journal :

6.

Htll Charges

32

0

0

Printing 1.274 13 6

7.

Miecelltneout

37

14

6

Postage 438 9 0

■

1.713

9

—

.■

3.

Library :

Books Purchased ...

39

3

/

Book Banding

146

14

Subscription to Papers

83 12

/

4,

Stationery

144

13

/

5.

Bank Charge*

39

9

/

6.

Mitrellaoeoiia

287

7

Total Re. ...

3.533

0

6

Total Re-

3.674

3

Opening Btl.nce ...

26

2

3

Overdraft on 1st July 1940

839

6

3.581

2

9

4.363

12

(30th June !941)Overdra/t

992

3

2

Closing Balance ...

9

11

Grand Total ...

4,373

7 11

Grand Total ...

4.373

7

Rwfvf Fund (At FAceValoe>—

Mysore Govt. 4% Stock

... 9.SO0

0

0

.. 5% Stock

... 1 500

0

0

Mysore Bank Share (one)

IOO

0

0

Fixed Deposit in Bank of Mysore

... 300

0

0

Fixed Deposit xo Treason

203

0

0

Deposit in Govt S. B.

30

0

0

Total R*.

... 12.150

0

0

Certified correct

(Sd.) T. M. S. Sub® a man yam

Hon. Auditor.

(Sd.) S. Srikamtaya
General Secretary
Treasu

THE THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL MBBTING 117

Electioi of President

Mr. M. Ramachandra Rao io proposing Rfiiakiryapravlna
N. S- Subba Kao as President for 1941-42 referred to the inter-
national reputation and deep learning of the President with whose
public spirit and co-operation the Society would be bound very
scon to augment us membership and have a separate structure for
its library. On Mr. D. Venkataramiah seconding the proposition,
it was carried with acclamation and Rfljakdryapravloa N. S-
Suhba Rao was duly elected President for 1941-42.

Election of Office-Bearers

Rftjadharmupiasakta K. Shankaranarayana Rao in proposing
the following Office-bearers for. the coming year observed that
the Vice- Presidents of the Society were people of high reputation,
deep thinking mid great statesmen and described the General
Secretary and Treasurer, Mr. S. Srikantaya, as a pillar of the
institution who lad worked strenuously heart and soul for
twenty years and referred to the valuable services rendered by the
Sectional Secretaries and other members of the Committee. Being
seconded by RajasgvEsakta P. Sabbarama Setty the following
Office bearers were elected for 1941-42.

OFFICE BEARERS FOR 1941-42

President

RAJAKARYAPRAVINA

N. S. Sb'BBA Rao, m.a. (Cantab.), Bar-at-Law

Vica-Presideeti

Amin-ul-Mulk Sir Mirza M. Ismail, k.c.i.e., o.b-b., c.st.j.

Rajamantkapravina N. Madhava Rau, b.a.. b.l.

KAJADHAKMAPRAV'inA DIWAN BAHADUR
K. S. CHANDRASEKHARA AlYAR, B.A., B.L.

Rajamantrapravina Diwan Bahadur
P. Raghavbndra Rao, b.a., b.l.

Rajasabhabhushana

Diwan Bahadur K. R. Srinivasiengar, m.a.

118 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Rajasabhabhushana K. Chandv, b.a.

Dr. E. P. Mktcalpe, d.sc.. p.idm.p.

Sir D’Arcv Reilly

Arthasastravisarada Mahamahopadhyaya

Vi DY ALAN KARA PANDITARAJA
Dr. R. Shama Sastry, b.a., Ph.D.
Rajamantrapravina S. P. Rajacopalachari, b.a.. b.l.

Goner al Secretary and Treasurer

S. Srikantaya, b.a., b.l.

Editor*

S. Srikantaya. b.a., b.l.

K. Devanathachariak, m.a.

Bruch Secretarial

Ethnology— Rajacharitavisarada Rao Bahadur
C. Hayavadana Rao, b.a., b.l.

History— Rbv. Father C. Browne, m.a.
Folklore— B. Puttaiya. b.a.

COMMITTEE

The abore tx officio ud M«ur»

E. G. McAlpinb, M.A., Dip. Edo., V.D., J.p.
Rajasevasakta Prop. A. R. Wadia, b.a. (Cantab.), Bar at Law.
Dr. M. H. Krishna, m.a., n.Liit.
Rajasevasakta Prop. B. M. Srikantia, m.a., b.l.

Dr. E. S. Krishnaswami Aiyar, b.a., m.b. & c.m.

J. R. Isaac, b.a., m.b.f-
Rajasevaprasakta A. N. Raghavachar, m.a.

DR. K. N. V. SASTKI, M.A., Ph.D., F.P.Hist.S.

Capt. Rao Sahib A. Tangavklu Mudaliar.

V. T. Tirunarayaka Iyengar, m.a.

THE THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING 119

Thedisnnguished Chairman of the meeting. Sir P. S.Sivaswamy
Aiyer. rising amidst cheers and acclamations delivered the following
addre'':-

CHAIRMAN S ADDRESS

" I thank you very much for having honoured me by an
invitation to preside on this occasion. The Mythic Society is devoted
purely to antiquarian research and studies and its objects
do not naturally come within the purview of the ordinary man who
is to all intents and purposes concerned with the matters of
topical and current interest. Its aims appeal to the learned
classes and have evoked a steady and satisfactory response during
the past thirty years. Its work is facilitated by the generous
patronage of His Highness the Maharaja of Mysore and the kindly
interest of His Government. The Government of His late Highness
the Mithfirfija of Mysore had always taken gieat and keen interest
in cultuial matters and doubtless the position of the Mythic Society
would improve under the inspiring patronage of the present
Mahlrfija.

Not being a specialist in any of the subjects, the Study of
which is intended to be promoted by the Mythic Society, I have
had great hesitation in accepting the invitation of your secretary
to preside at the annual meeting. He made a similar request to
me last year, but 1 informed him that owing to another commit-
ment, 1 was unable to comply with his request. As he has
repeated his invitation this year also, I have reluctantly yielded
to his request. He has been good enough to supply me with
copies nf the addresses delivered at your annual meetings in
previous years, and I found that some of my predecessors were
also ueiiilemen who disclaimed any specialistic knowledge in the
subjects m which your Society is interested. I discovered also
that I was not the first person who felt intrigued by the name of
your Society. Why it is called the Mythic Society, I do not know.
The choice of the name was probably the inspiration of the
late Father Tabard who was one of the founders of the Society.
Perhaps my esteemed friend Dr. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar. who
was also one of the original members, may throw light upon the

120 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

origin of (he name* The Society is not a mythical entity, but
a reality and is quite alive.

The declared objects of the Society do not include the subject
of mythology. But I believe that the study of mythology from
the rationalist point of view would not be outside the scope of
the aims of the Society, and can be brought within the comprehen.
sive term ‘other allied subjects'. In a handy dictionary I
carry with me, a myth is defined as a fictitious legend or tradition
accepted as historical, usually embodying the beliefs of the people
on the creation, the gods, the universe, etc. Hindu Mythology
occupies a large place in the traditions, beliofs, literature and
the religious rituals and practices of our country and abounds in
stories not less interesting and fantastic than those of other countries.
A study of this subject from a scientific or rationalist point of
view should be quite interesting and is not beneath the notice
of a learned body like yours.

• Since the delivery o! Ihe above addrees. I consulted Dr S. Kc.shnaawaml
Aiyangat. and the follow log oote wet kindly furnished by him in aiplanaiion
of the name of ihe Society —

Nors

The name Mythic Society was chosea. Iron • certain number of names
suggested, as being perhap* the most innocuous from the point of view
of service rules, etc. which would debar ladies and gentlemen belonging
to certain services from participating in ihe work of the Society rmtber
rigorously. At the lime that ihe Society wee founded there were
among the members, a number of lha military officers of the station,
and two or three members of the Hoo’bte The Resident's waff. After
rejecting a number of names suggested as oo« covering the whole scope of
the work, it was thought the name Mythic would be the moat innocuous,
as authority was pointed out that early Creel uaagn justified the name
Mythic* for matters connected with the early dawn of history aDd
even pre-hiatory. So that was adopted as meeting oat needs at the rime.
Il was not marn ordinary paopia alone, even Bishop Whitehead of
Madras found it rather a queer name, and be sometimes stated publxly
that I waa a myth. It is. however, strange tbe word has continued to
be p unling even after so many explanations and corrections. I hope this
statement published along with the Presidential address would go a
considerable way towanle clearing tbe bare yet hanging around it

S Kltl*H«A»W.UI A tVAHOS*.

TUB THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEET I NO 121

In easting about for a subject upon which 1 might address
you, it struck mo that some observations on Hindu mythology
might not he inappropriate. The late Sir James Frazer devoted
many years of his life to it, and his researches upon myths are
embodied in the twelve volumes of the ' Golden Bough \ In a learned
article in Hastings' " Cyclopaedia of Religion" Mr. E. A, Gardner
observes that there is :io universal key to solve all mythological
problems and that the study of mythology is, for the reasons
mentioned by him, obscure aud difficult.

I have not come across any papers contributed by the members
of this Society on the subject of mythology. There is one learned
contribution to the literature on Hindu mythology by the late
Mr. N. S' it ay ana Aiyangar. I have looked into some portions
of his " Essays in Indo-Aryan Mythology", and if l may presume
to express au opinion, he seems inclined to attribute a solar,
stellar or astronomical origin to many of the Hindu myths. Even
the late Professor Max Muller was not exempt from a tendency
to seductive generalisation.

The >| aestions to which 1 propose to draw your attention this
evening ate, how do myths arise ? Were they invented by
particul.u individuals with intent to deceive or mislead people?
What was their motive or purpose? What is the method or
principle of interpretation to be adopted ? How far are we
justified in attaching an esoteric or allegorical meaning to myths?
Has any i-eful purpose been served by myths in the development
of human culture ?

The first point which I should like to emphasise is that
unlike many of the fables and fairy tales, myths were generally
accepted as true by the people at large among whom they came
into existence. It may not be possible to trace the origin or
authorship of a myth to a particular individual. It might have
been originally shared by a large number of people or might have
originated in the poetic fancy or imagination of some individual
winch appealed to his contemporaries and in the course of frequent
repetition, hardened into belief.

As regards the origin of myths, it may be pointed out that

122 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

a large number of them have arisen out of the tendency of primitive
humanity to personify nature and especially objects endowed with
life and mot.oa. Celestial bodies whose motions strike the eye and
excite curiosity are also personified. Man’s own movements are
the results of his own will and intelligence and he is naturally
disposed to infer that motion in the external world must also be
the result of a personality endowed with similar attributes. The
sun, moon and stars, trees, rivers and the ocean are among
the first objects in external nature which are personified. The
appearances of these objects give rise to poetic descriptions which
are the result of the poet’s fancy or imagination. The names of
the constellations represented by the signs of the zodiac and the
names of rn'ers are obvious instances. These objects are supposed
to be the embodiment of spirits. We hear, for instance, of Vana-
devatas. Even inanimate objects like mountains, t.g. Himavan.
are Invested with personality. Once these objects, whether living
or inanimate, have been endowed with personality, it is easy to
imagine how human characteristics came to be attributed to them,
and relations between tbeso personalities or embodied spirits are
invented and come to be believed by the people at large. Tne
original beliefs or stories give rise to a number of secondary,
tertiary or derivative stories and belief*. The fancy of the poet
creates for them wives and a growing generation of descendants.
Separate races axe believed to have sprung from the sun and
the moon, and there are to this day numerous royal families which
claim, whether seriously or otherwise, descent from these races.
Their exploits, wars and feuds become the subjects of legends.
These legends are the result of the human curiosity to inquire
about ancestors and descendants. Natural phenomena, like the
revolutions of the planets and stars, eclipses, earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions have also been ascribed to the actions and
movements of these personalities.

Social customs which have arisen in a primitive age survive
into later ages, and where they are out of harmony with the
moral notions and etho9 of the later age. legends have to he
invented to justify the surviving primitive practice in the eyes
of the later generation. For example, the marriage of Draupadi

THE THIRTY. FIRST ANNUAL MEETING 12 1

to (he Pfiptjava* which was obviously a vestige of the practice
of polyandry prevalent among certain tribes, had to be justified
by mythical 'tories of various kinds relating (l) to incidents in
the previous births ol Draupadi and (2) to the supposed obligation
of soos to carry out in the letter the injunctions of their parents,
however absurd t 'ey might be. Myths are often invented for
the purpose of enforcing moral obligations by exaggerating the
length to which t ie observance of these duties should be carried,
as in the inso of I'aratur&ma who killed his mother at the behest
of his fat i'-i Jamadagni. The shocking character of this story
is mitigated ot counter balanced by the miracle of the resuscitation
of Paraiur&ma's mother at his intercession.

The love of poetic justice and the desire for the reward of
virtue and the punishment of evil have led almost all nations to
the conception oi heaven and hell where justice may be done to
the departed souls by God. This belief has in its turn led to a
large crop .•! beliefs regarding the various tortures of hell and
the pleasures of heaven. It must be admitted that in the past this
belief has exercised a potent influence upon the conduct of men
in their relations towards other men and in their treatment of the
lower animals, and it has been an incentive to the practice of virtue.

Whether God fashions man after His own image or not, we
do not know. It would perhaps be more true to say that man
fashions God after his own image, and attributes to Him a
super ivbudant measure of his own qualities. Some of the gods
share our weaknesses. For instance, just as most of us Hindus
have not acquired the art of saying 1 no ' to persistent supplications,
Brahma and Siva have been unable to refuse supplications accom-
panied by austerities involving self torture to secure the boons
of invulnerability, invincibility, domination or even destruction of
others. Complaisance may be a virtue in small matters and
within narrow limits, but the complaisance of the gods is at the
expense of their ability to foresee the consequences of the boons
and the abuse of their favours. The cases of Rftvana, BhasnUsura
and numerous others will come to your memory, and the Gods
Brahma and Siva had to be rescued by Vip.iu from the perilous
plight to which they were reduced by their want of foresight

124 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OP THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Sever*! of our myths are merely the hypostatization of
abstract qualities like Dbarma (justice), Sraddba (devotion), Kama
(love), Rati (pleasure), K$*rna (patience), Krpa (mercy), Hrl
(modesty), Sri (prosperity).

Another factor which has contributed to the rise of myths is
the love of marvels and miracles which is deep-tooted in human
nature and is often associated with the exploits of heroes or the
kindly intervention of divinity. Visits of heroes to celestial regions
or to the bottom of the ocean, the exploit of Hanuman in crossing
the ocean, may be cited as instances of myths of this kind.

An aversion to certain natural processes and functions and
the desire to avoid any taint of a base and earthly origin are
responsible for beliefs in immaculate conception and virgin birth.
These and the doctrine of physical resurrection do not now find
acceptance among enlightened Christians. The report of the
Archbishops' Commission on Doctrine in the Church of England
which was published in 1938 has adopted a rational and tolerant
attitude towards the beliefs prevalent in different schools of
Christian thought. Regarding miracles the Commission believed
it to be more congruous with the wisdom of God that He should
never vary the regularities of nature.

There is also inherent in humanity a love of the abnormal, the
grotesque and the comic.

Another species of myths arising from the play of imagi-
nation in making all sorts of combinations of human and animal
forms is illustrated by fabulous creatures like unicorn, dragon,
gnfiin, centaur, mmotaur, sphinx, satyr and faun.

In another class of cases the myths have arisen from
the exaggeration of ordinary human instincts and desires. The
desire for longevity is illustiated by the ascription of a life of
60,000 years to king Dasaratba: the desire to fly in the air
is illustrated by the stories which describe Rival's flight in
chariots borne through the air and Indrajit's battles from the air.
In these cases it is the wish that has been the father of the myths.
Though flight in the air was a pure myth at the time of the

TUB THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL MBBTINC 125

Rimayapa, it has become a fact in this century through the
achievement! of science as a result of the investigation and control
of the forces of nature. This does not, however, justify a belief in
the truth oi the myths as recorded in the Pur&pas.

These is a body of myths relating to cosmogony contained in
the Vedas and the Upanisads. But the MimSmsaka came to the aid
of the rationalist centuries ago and warned us against the acceptance
of the truth of the Akhyayikfts (or stories) contained in the Vgdas.
With re>;.vd to the principles of interpretation to be applied to
the myths, one important principle which commends itself to me
with my !• gal i Stic bias is that the literal interpretation of the
myths i* 11 >t to be rejected merely because it leads to a belief
incongruou - with our present knowledge or inconsistent with our
present not: >os of morality or religion. Esoteric explanations should
as far a* jossible be avoided. If these mythical stones were
intended to be symbolical of external facts or objective truths*
why coaid not such facts or truths have been plainly stated, so
as to be ui> erstood by ordinary people ? Unlees it can be shown
tha: a plain and unvarnished statement of the facts or truths could
not possibly have been understood in the then state of popular
knowledge or would have been liable to abuse, the literal interpre-
tation >uld be preferred to the esoteric. It is iraposible to
under Maiul why people should have been at pains to wrap the truth
iu my*:enus or a cloud of symbols which require elaborate
explanations. There is no doubt that myths have exercised
considerable influence on several of our practices and especially
o:» thi! i muds of persons who have not received the benefits of
mi.ifr i fi xation. Many of the festivals which have contributed
to t‘n<? r iliv ining of our life are closely connected with mythical
stories. It does not follow that the disappearance of our belief
in myths will necessarily lead to the disappearace of our national
festivals. Nor need it necessarily lead to an inability to enjoy
p:eiica1 or >ther literature embodying m^fhs. The disappearance
of fairies, naads, dryads and sea-nymphs has not spoiled our
enjoyment «>! poetry. We can love and enjoy nature just as much
as our ancestors did. The marvels of science are even more
wonderful *.han the marvels of mythology, and thanks to a benign

126 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Providence, the human mind has a wonderful capacity for
accommodating the most incongruous beliefs.

In conclusion, I must add that I do not wish to be understood
as having expressed an opinion against the immanence of a Higher
Power in the universe or as banging the door upon religion."

• • •

Rev. Father C. Browne in proposing a hearty vote of thanks
to the distinguished guest of the evening referred to his great talents,
patient labour, honest and disinterested devotion to duty and the
high position which he held as a doyen of Indian political life and
thanked him for his address which was full of that profundity of
thought and expression which characterised all lus public
utterances.

An Useful Book for Schools. Libraries, and Students of
Mysore History!

MODERN MYSORE

By Rajakaryaprasakta Rao Bahadur M. Shama Rao, M.a
[Retired Civilian of Mysore)

A very interesting and useful book on Mysore History
from the time of the Early Yadava Kings of Mysore
to the trip to Europe of His Highness Sir Sri
Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV; in Two Volumes.

Price Rs. 10-0 0 India; £. 10 0 Foreiga ; $. 5 America

POSTAGE EXTRA

be had from :

THE GENERAL SECRETARY,

Mythic Society, Daly Memorial Hall,

Cenotaph Road. BANGALORE CITY

With three cheers to His Highness the Mah&r&ja of Mysore
the meeting terminated.

THE MEMBERS OF

THE ANCIENT SOUTH INDIAN ARMY ( SENAI ) :
THEIR ASSEMBLY AND ITS FUNCTIONS'

By K. S. Vaidyanatiian, u.a.

Argument

Sl'hJMIT for investigation — importance of the army —

Siiiiii its meaning and its divisions— God of Wax and
Scnft|iati— the title and position of SdoSpali — Dubbing of
hcio as Stnipali — Commanders as chiefs and governors of
prouii.es — various uviges of the term Dao4an5yaka —
Seoai.iiclicn— the quaiter of the army — S&nUpati's resi-
dner m n — King's frequent visits to the quarter — VSlaik-
kdias, a prominent element — regiments once in prominence
it? degeneration tuio a multitude of castes — padayichcbi
etc. their modern representatives — encampments, garri-
sons, and cantonments — recruitment not restricted — the
iaiiou -1 inhabitants of the Sdri — the chief of the quarter
Sfioaikhilavat! — Sdoaivai.iigamor tbe Commissariat depart-
ment Perutigagichchabgam and Senaivalluvamudumagan
attached to the quarter — lnscriptional Extracts— the exis-
tence, nature and functions of the military assembly Sbnai
RJsumi.

Who «ere all the members that constituted the Ancient South
Indian At my? Had they any geographical standing in the
counity ? Or were they merely important on account of their
engagements in the sanguinary War? If they had any territorial
units had such units any assemblies of their own representing
them } If such assemblies existed, what were the nature of their
constitution and their sphere of work ? These are all highly
interesting problems which have not been conclusively answered.
An accurate and comprehensive study of the references to the
ancient South Indian Army, both in tlie Literary and Epigraphical

* This |*p.r mas read at the Tenth Session ot the All India Oriental Con-
fmnre, held at Ttrupaii, March 1940.

1

128 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

sources, would enable one to answer the above noted queries, and
so far as we know, such a study has not uptil now been made.
The present paper embodies the results of an attempt in that
direction.

A study of Tamil Literature in particular discloses the
fact that kings and emperors who ruled over different kingdoms
and empires in India from days of old, had almost always been
surrounded by the great bodies known in Tamil as Aimpcrubkulu 1
and Egpfcrftyam*. The bodies that went by the first name* or
council were the mantrin (ammchchar), the purdltita (putdhitar),
the Senftpati (Stoiipatiyar). the dtlta (tavtitioiilHUfiivar) and iSie
chira {charawnr). Again, the eight great Ayams 4 lenperoynm)
consisted of the Karanattiyalavar, Karumnvrdigol Kad<rikappular %
Nagaramandnr , Na\ipx\4ai itahfivar Yiitairfrar, lvn\inuiravar
and such like. They can be generally known as Katapa (head
among clerks), PurOhits (Kramavits), guards of passages, great men
of the City, valorous SonApatis, heads of Hleplianiry and Cavalry

1. It is very interesting to find ibe word Aimprntteith m occurring in an

leicrlpiion. Dal il i. '«f| and hence give. ui no inform.-

■•on it all. S. I. I. Vol. IV. No. JSB. Tlie AlmperunVula of (he
Tamil Liieialme i» perhaps kno«n in Saii'krit a* PaicA imakantrg*.
See al«o Manimi ( alai p 10. J7« Aim. a r.rv.y of Veche and other
references to the corporate activities iu political lift. Mr. It. C Mn/ure-
dar expressed his view on the Tamil references to AimpfruukutH as
fallows It appears to iot that I be so catted Fixe Assetntties were
realty the commute** of a great Amiably.*' Corporate l.ift. p. 111-2.

2. Man. C. 1. 1.17; Ptrabgada. : IV. 9. I. 5 : V. 6. 1.17. SiUppwbgiiam

Indira 1.157. The bodies uln> weni with the king were called
NtngHchchtirratH. and (hose that accompanied the queen tier* ralitsl
Urimaichch*rram . they were generally knoun ns
churr^iim and \ tut tadaNfrt rut ** m .
y Cf. jfmu&wi LfZnQfii <3*muffai

fiaippiiPpjfjjaii fftBtm&sa* fietp
(jf#^ i 2«u.riaosunO<j0«^5(r^Qaitn(jij® , 3(D — fimi&jui

4. Cf. •rmm pfiuatati ruBfi^ai
*t**j»ppic smu-Mtuutmi

fiScaajQraiilugi*y2iMtu — pltu'Xld,

THE ANCIENT SOUTH INDIAN ARMY {SENA I) 129

To these followers who went beside the king as his shadow,
^rear respect was everywhere shown and on every occasion. Before
launching upon the final step of action, they were consulted by the
kina. As the policy of the state depended on the direction and
advice of these important groups, great care should necessarily
have been bestowed on the selection and appointment of able men
for these high offices. Whatever it was, in the list of officers
who were grouped together ns the two great councils, we find
in both of them the office of SltiZp<riiyar or iV«f f //3wf rr f tin hit vdf\
which must necessarily indicate that the SooOpati was looked upon
with great respect. It goes without saying that direction and
advice must have been might from him in times of political
necessity. \Yc shall study in detail the position of the Sdnipciti, the
residence of the army, the kinds of armies, and the various functions
that its members had to perform in ancient times.

What is the meaning of the term $$imi ? S6oai »n*aos air
army'. It is the same as Sainyam or Pad u in Tamil. S^uai is
Sftnft in Sauski it and heive in Pftli and Singhalese. Padai or
Sena: was one among the six great tiitgax that belonged to the
king. The other fi%e were Kittfi, /CS/, /Iwi/i^VZ/m, XtHf>u ami

The army wa* useful to the king m preventing and
protecting the country from in* isiou* and t geign aggresxon*,
in spreading his fame by com | ties l and valuui. and m liter caking
his source of income or t* venue/ by spoils and tributes. To a
king .i fearless and strong army* was a very valuable asset and
it is $a»d that a small army composed of well trained and efficient
wamurs w.u> lar lietier than one which was large, not well trained
and without a S6it*;>ati or chief to direct and control. The army
was divided into six mailt divisions which were Mvhifipiiiat
(also called l<*Jipp<i<f,n at MHtip,t<l,ii), 9 E pp.nl, n (also called

3. The «Kh«tr mr.tnin|** of the term are market, a fail, a lioxt. nn esculent
root and weapons

6. Kural S. II. v. 381

7. Silupiu 1.210.

S. Puram J Madurait : I. 37-38 Perumpin I 101-2. Penang: I. 32.

I. 05

9. Pcruag: 111 2«. I 39.

130 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

pajaippadai and was perhaps composed of Vl{aikkiras and
Vrillikirat), N&Huppadai, Ea^uppajai, Tanaippajai and Pa-
gaippajai. 10 There were maoy subdivisions or what are known as
regiments which were in Vlfama and Kajagams. The army con-
sisted of seven parts Uram, two wings {Igakkai), Madhyam,
Praligraham, Brithfam and KtyiM Again the army was of four
kinds, called Dart Jam, Manjalam, Aiangalham and Bhdgam. a
The appearance of the army was like unto an ocean, 1 * with

10. Besides there ■»* another division ceiled Sur'"tPaJ»'. “hich “ei olio

called Pujatppajai and Sufatpajai— w||<im ( fiarivala, Ibid. 24.
I. «a PaJipaJai is rbe name lor a hidden aimy. An idea of the
array und ilo division* con be hid by a reference to ihe following
information otrtaiuaWe from Lexicons and Dicuonar.ee
Pajaittogai ■ Divisions of the army
3 petti - SeoSmugam: A divixion of an army consisting of 3

chariots. S elephants. V horses and 15 Infamy.
Probably it was the army in ihe fore-front -lib the
commander Sr c e pal i .

3 Svnnmugana - Kulumam or Komcdam
3 Kuroudam - Kenato or Kanakatn

3 Kanakam - Vkkflii

3 Vakflii “ Piraiai.ii. Piralayem

3 Ptratayai - Santo, Samuttiram

3 Samu - Anibam 3 5am u = Sin gam
lOAQlkam- - Akkorbni

Akkur&m - 20.870 chariot*, 20,870 elephants. 65.610 horses.

104.350 iofantry.

The mam bodies of the army are given as under A$i. Aikam. LfK.iii. Olio,
Kil|ai. Kai. Tut. Tuii. Nirai. Nelli. Yigam. Tbe commemalor of
Takkayagipiianl equating Tar with Tii*i. describes Tuiippada* ns a
division of tbe array arranged m the form of a long pointed needle
with a broad cential portion and an. end wen-formed, large, tound
and prominent. Canto, VIII. V. 313.

11. Kur»|

12. Ibid. Dandaro - Array arranged crosswise ; Nandalam - aranged in

tbe snake's rotating form . Aiaogatbam = separated into parts . Bb&gam
- arranging regiment* one behind rbe orher.

13 Paltu : VI. 1. 180; Perudg ; 1 58. I. 97 ; Jivak. 2169. The path in which
ibe army moved was called Anamapidai.

THE A SCt ENT SOUTH INMAN ARMY {SEN At) 131

autnefous elephant*, horses pntagai, flags umbrellas, p<iiliy<tttt.
kik<t\at w, etc. In general the army wa* composed of Infantry.
Elcphauiry, War Chariots and Cavalry. The war chariots became
an absent feature as days progressed and iu latter days it came to be
fashionably associated with the royal insignia of honour. These
war chariots were a peculiar featute of the Myceneau Civilization
of about 1200 B. C> 4 The cavalty force was composed of soldiers
who did not wield weighty arms, but u*ed only short bucklers.
The infantry consisted of well-skilled archers and footmen of
tbc ordinary class. The equipment of the archers were the bow
and quiver of arrows. The footmen carried a Sjxar or battle-axe
oo their right hand and a shield of o.\-!nde on their left. All these
and the king wore a defensive armour called the anklet.**

God Kfirtikeya or kumara is said to be the Sfioftpati of the
forces of the l>6cas. He is variously called Maha*Soa. Mah*s*nft-
pati. MMna|p SflnOdipnn, amt Vi*valc*5na. He is often the
object of comparison when a king or commander is described.
For instance in the KftsAkmh plates, 14 when describing the Pallava,
it is said that “All (the kings! sprang from (this! race possessed
power that was everywhere iirrsistahle, large armies, pure descent,
birth from a lotus, (and) great piety, (and therefore) resembled
Kumfcra, whose spear is everywhere irresistible, (who is also
called! Mal:£>6u4. who is the son of lire, who invented (the array
of the army in rbc form of) a lotus (and who is also called)
Subrahmapya. The great fierceness,— -that resembled fire, of
the power ol their arms dried up,— like the water of the ocean,
the irresistible valour of all enemies.” To the warrior the God is
Subrahmanya. 17 The head of the army is known by different names

H. War-cUft: >ou became an absent feature not only *n Ind»a: w* And no
n*e of them among tbc Parthian*. cAcept foe the conveyance of tl>«
female*, «*ho accompanied the noble* during their expedition*. S e«
p. 4CKi of Kawlinson'n Ancient monarchic* — The sixth rooonrxhy.

IS. Kanfikaiabhai The Tamil* l.SCO year* ago.

1$. SM. Veil. tt. Pi. 111. No 73. The Pnllara* bc^e the name* Saanda.

Kumara etc. S«*. H»«. Sketches. K. V S Aiyer. p. J!

17. V'.inuc ru^uil/.i/iuvrf— Tirumuriiifarruppwk* 1 260

God Sihrati manta and Pa raflur ma are said to hate learnt everything
about warfare under S'»a

152 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

in Tamil Literature. He was known as Mun)5p, StnaivfndAii, 1 *
TfinaivftndaD,** Tlnaiirai » SftnaittAlaivar, Tftnaiftafcaivar,* 1 Tnndi-
rattalaivar, S4oflp*ti» Kuruidar, Vayavar, Vayavar-perumagap ,®
etc.® In ancient Ceylon he was known as Stn^vlraf, Sendn4yaka and
SMMmahta. 24 The office of the S$nApati, was one of very high rank
and it was very difficult to obtain the name and title of Sta&pati. A
hero in war, who by having displayed his boundless valour in the
battle-field, after having stood in the front ranks of the army while
engaged in war, and having received many serious wounds, and
regardless of these having conquered many unronquerahte enemies,
and having loved war alone above all things, pleased the heart of the
king, was considered fit to be dubbed as a commander of the
forces, and to receive the title of Sfrilpati." It is told that
this title was higher even than that of a nutntri (minister), and
was called in Tamil F.noiftpfuiuant and that this title of honour
was next only to that of kingship.* Rnldi was often the name
of the commanders of all warriors, according to the com-
mentator of NtlakHfi. There was also a band or fillet of valour
which was made of glittering gold and named RnAdi-sempox-
pa mm. The Warrior to he dubbed as SdnApati was to wear the
same when he received a signet ring from the king. The title
of SSnSpati was bestowed on persons who had pleased the heart
of the king by their valour and achievements in the battle-field, on

IS Perung : See the reference* under ihe name.

19. Ibid

20. Ibid : I 42. 1.167,

21. IbiJ: I M. 1.51. Tirumurug: 1260.

22. Mudttraik : 1. 336 ; fVrumpXn : 1. 102 ; Smipin : f. 2«Q. For lit* other

meaning* of vmyavaa and hia connection with Samaniu-xydal or
Saroanta karana See Ep. Ind. Vol. XXIV p 32.

23- The oilier synonym* found In Nigb&ndo are : Ku|iyar, Egilar.

Vilulavar. Ma||ar. Maxavar. Radar. Porur»n eic.

24. Mabivam**. Ep. Zev. Vol. III. Pi. V. p. 2«0f : Vol. 1. p. 34.

23. Madtiraik; 1 . 725-6.

26. The title of SeoSpaii sometime* denoted a title of honour as in the case of
the Southern IkMku ruler*. Ep Ind. Vol XXtlt. p. 52 n. S. See also
note 2S no page 133.

THU ASCI US r SOUTH INDIAN ARMY [SKSAi) 133

the following pumpo.t* /.ml i:erc»nnni;d occa^on/* A separate
well decor a ted pavd.ou Wiis constructed. and in tins the king and
his queen willi u*r female retinue. accompanied hy the ministers.
parvhiis, aMinUucis run! llte other meat followers ol the king
would I* t« mu ! seated in their allotted seats A ring tailed
Kt&dnnO.|»ia;n nude nf Hold, socially made h*i |be ocmfioii, with
the name ol the king engraved mi it, was kept ready. On this
occasion when all were gallic Jed lira tli<? pavilion, and m the
presenn* ol SC* iiVp.it >5 aud distinguished warriors the king would
rise from his seat at ihe appointed jtu*.pn;ior.<; iioui ami put the
lin&dimO liuo i r«n o » the lingd nl the hero who w<HC the gold
foreland Kind I a-td pnaltam, and dubbed him saying " Von ate
a Sfriit|uii' Srom now M After the pi escalation ut llic signet
ring l 2 * J and in*- having • ailed h»«n a Senupati, the kiug would
bestow 0*i Him great gill^ comprising ol X ail us and \ is lulling
annual ino»«> worth in JakHs and also horses, elephants dm riots
27. Pirtuof : IV. 9. 1 51 .

u>u>Qu ( $®&pu£*

QWppiQmim&ifs pm

miu>'2u>ifSr timpplQaimtS

Qv&jftS-GpamtQrflpfii
Ji.nl. -1*7. 9*i (tfr^-j&pi uxiimi lAtiim

mUu/2u*f^QpnLu.im umt-StiL^
ulQgpm aptfim S/itummw
0oiu«/3 tufl *m mi msippfimi

Q«mmut : Quii*l-mtippni> t^rJipQpiuuto umH-ayi

aiiaai—ioQupp amrtim<2<ff — QuiiaQaixoiii
pi&P*jiQti ptiQmipm Quxfir&Q*
Q, 0 fi*uiLi-ppmm

28 li worthy of not* that the highoi dually ia the Panhlai kiagdoa.
next to tbe ctOot. w»» that ot Surma Or * Field Marabal and this
position was hereditary ia a particular family. He bad many retainers
and slaves heavily armed, under bio. It was hit rifht to place the
diadem on tbe Hog's brow w his coronation. See p. 402. Rawliosoo's
Ancient Monarchies— Tbe Sixth Monarchy.

29. See note 27.

134 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

Rod other rich presents 30 . Further, oo this very auspicious and
glorious day, it was customary that a lady born of a high and
respectable family would also !*e given in marriage to the new
S&n&pati with all the pomp and ceremony worthy of such in
occasion. 31 Then the king would give advice to the hero to keep
to his Dharma, to follow the rules laid down for him by the great
law-givers, and would ask him to go and reside in peace and calm
in the territorial divisions that had been granted to him, and to
return whenever he required him. This is the description that n$
have in Tamil Literature and we find a strikingly corroborate
account in the following copper-plate record.

Text »

Line 92. Dhirfl nityinuruklO dru<Ja iiieitnmati-brahmavaaiiapi'i
dhplO —

Line 93. lakshmlbhdriddhatajS nayapitiayanvdhisab'.ra aastta-
pravl^ah (l) raftnyaajtilfindra s&rasttra ill eba mayft
sAdd—

30. Perung; IV, 9 I. Ilf.

u*v j&r<ty£fu>

fcr tpi

mrfiflu Qpu'2u*Qi—9muu&*e*Q
Jivak. 2569. jfico&c eutyS fluy*

ptmauji Q/Ftmp
QMtQu&ppiQe*

A Tamil inscription oo a pillar set up in front of the Soro4&vara temple at
Cangnv&ra. Mysore State, dated in the ibirly-third >e<\r of the rc»#n
ol Udaiyar Sn Ratidhirajadeva, mentions that Seanainidu in Tadi-
qair»!» ViknmA'olaniAndalA «*s the Jivit* conferred on ilie

general Sinafatti Rajendraioja Br*hniaia*rayar. E.C. Vol. IX. D*. 76.
II. Perobg. IV. 9. L 15f.

utmjsi/rsup ujpiAia&pcm
3 a tin.

gfrmuj* prt«vp3€m fl

AUsSmp llc pQgiQ cuj§9mtJ3^iL^.u

Qu($m*++9pui(ih Quui pQ p
32 S. 1. I. Vol. !. p. 56. I 92f.

THH AXCiliXT SOUTH I.XDiAS AkMY ISflSAi) U5

Lil)f Jilin Mtirx^iUain s&iAfKitvtililiisliiktd v.v ii. j.iitni*ir.i!d

|Kit(;(ii>niOj>ii:im yali : 1 [v : 3f)}.

MobittCirya was n VaisiiJiiA. a striking mnobomiion of

the Tamil account dcw'iibeil thovr, the declaration of the ragmcig
king in the tc\! •! noted, i*. found >o tin* Clullur platen ol \ ira-OltOda,
in Eastern (‘fllukya charter. In it he (the king) says that hi*
commander* in-eh icf MeilaiiiATva «f/ms (itinnratn;ihhG*h:ih;i, s \v;i* a
** general, firm, Always Attached, of strong and sharp mind, a light
of the rare of Brahman, an abode of prosperity, possessed of blazing
splendour, a treasure house of polity and modesty, skilled in science*
and iveaions, worthy of honour and as hard as the substance of the
king of mountains," and that he was respectfully and graciously
anointed by Vira-ChOda, the king himself (iw<ryd), “ to the dignity
of a contniander-in-chief ISht&patt) M and bestowed " the tiara which
was placed (on bis head) to the delight of the people *\ MayOrawir.
man started his career ns a political bandit and wps given a fief by
the Pall iva emperor in whose service he entered as a general. He
was anointed by the king as SSriapati {pa\\abh<wd(tsamp*jam).
SdnApatis received pai[abhan<id (or * pagree ’-binding) according
to the lUj* Nlti-mayOkha.

In an inscription 14 it is stated that a certain amount of pen
(gold) vms received from Nnkkan Enadi of 1| ijambar-pl*}ti which
was situated on the northern banks of the river Kftvtri in the
COIa lountry, for the purpose of burning a perpetual lamp.
From this record it is plain that Nakkafl EpAdi was the head of
liinanilxtr N&Ju. From his name and from the fact that he was
the of the nidu, it is clear that he should have received both
the Ki.Adi title and the nfldu when lus valour in war and his
setvh. o the king were recogmsed by the king. 18 That Sfoipati*
were lu l ls of territorial divisions like N«Ju and Cr, arc clearly
known tn>m epigraphs. Not only this, but kings themselves bore

3J TaVgnri* ia^npiioe Kp. lad Vol VI1L 32.

3* J> I I Vol. III. Pi- III. p. 261 No 125.

M Tbr .iiistmce of place* still bearing names, like BpidiyUc. Knib-
tnangalam etc. are perhaps reoioi^ceota of web facts. S.M. Vol. VII.
No. toil: A K. p. 1934.

136 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE M YTH1C SOCIETY

the sur-name l«p*di.* Kyddi Mockudaiy&p Periyanhyap a Inn
Poitappuivsn is mentioned ui an inscription.®' The very name
SSnlpati J:tyamurinlbjsjv&p, who was one among the generals under
HajBndra COl*. will make clear the above facts. One of the San a
saints (NayanSr', mentioned in live Periyapurapam, was named
l-'rillJiiityanfa and his profession was to give military training
to the king.

Many were the parts that were conquered by Rhjarftja, the
great CO|a monarch. From an inscription from modern Coorg
it is seen that in the battle that was fought at BanSsago a
warrior called Monija, who fought against him (Rajnr*ja) had
showed great valour and courage, and that this Mlnija was
praised by the king himself, though the former was an enemy
defeated by him, and with great satisfaction ordered his
general Sontpati (Mahadaptjaniyaka) Paflcavanmah*i«ya. to
raise the hero to the rank of Ksatriyasikhttmani-Kongilvlir, and to
present him the village Malawi. The act of the king amply
illustrates that tire position and the title of Sftnfcpati was difficult
to obtain.*

Dapijanlyakn was the title given to SCntpatis, the head among
warriors. Dapdt or Daprju means an army and niyaka means
a head or a chief. In Ceylon Dan^anSyaka was also called Siofina-
yaka. the Nhy.ika or head of the S6n* (army). From the

*6. Sfilira P«|*di Tiral»u tu.wi (Pupm. 3041. Eliidi TmilkiJll (Ibid 1671
Rnftdi ; Mini. p. 205. Sfilai ocean as the name ot * perron in S 1.1.
Vol. III. p. 21.2.

17. No. 217 ni U. E. R lor I9t2.

IS. Pcruiulensm Dandinlyaka ocruo in No. 103 ol 1911, and from the
record it ii seen ihar he .»« the head ol &tuinahgnUm nnil that
he was newt, named Cr>ie|) Kwmira n MadlierkmakaraSrSyag.
Fro® another rroonl his loll name appear* to hare been C-jan
Komexn ParnmakamirSya Kaja-lhirlja N!lagalig»rn>»ar(l02of 1903).
From llituaslro we get corrobornin*e».dence toihow that the Si nhpati*
received gilie «•! N«t)a and T r fro® ih« king and that they were named
almr their lord*.

THE ANCIENT SOUTH INDIAN ARMY iSENAI) 137

numerous inscriptions it is seen that VHo r M and Arniyar* which
are found usunliy added to the names of chief* and general** were
suffixes, that indicated their rank and position.

In epigraphtcal records, the generals and the governors
of vaiious territorial divisions, aie often described with titles like
SfnAtlhipsli Hiriy HeddawtUa, MAha-Piacapd^da^lanayaka, 41
Dnppaniivaka, Sar vSdhik&rin,* Mfth&prsdhSna, 43 Mannavecgadda
Dumliinayakn. 44 KaikkOpSSuftpntiimidaltgal, 15 Sdiulivigrahi,* Ma
lift<a-.u:ntft:l in pair, 47 Agambatji-miulah 43 and so on. Of these the
Mah$*ft unni&dhipAti was entitled to live honour of five great
musical instruments. They were allowed the honour of using
elephants, and chariots, wearing tubes of their offices and
parasols etc. which were a distinction of their rank. Pa ratal a
us sawl 10 be a designation of the commander of the anny. 4 *
The word MahftdandanSyaka has been translated as ' judge

39. In ancient days the Si aa pel •» gave mart? gifts to temp!** *ml on. itch
ir* t a nee it ftrnatad in a word which Mate* iluu SC' n Spat i
Parapli Pafekshatonwr VKracOlo Iruiigfo*l$r rovde a gift fnr the both-
inn of Kaia**t ViUniadevar in aandnt patte. by hfo ing purchase! land*
from two village* and leading them with the tamplc* (131 ol 19121.
Frocn this it »* plain that SvnSpAii*. Iu<l also the nnme IruiigO" 1*» ne
wrap! y Vfll*r

40 The suffix ApUyar i* found in many record* for axampla No. 232 of 19)3 :
unit No. 41$ of S. I. I. Vol. V
4) . Fp. Car Vol. V. Hn. 53.

*42. Ibid. Vol. 1 1. Sb 240.

43 Ibul. SH. I IS.

44. Ihhl. Vol. VII. SI III

43. KnikknJ'MoiUhg*! i* e.juaJ ro SCnipAii and Niyan Ihern won

MahinSeipeu.

46. Rp.CAf.Xl. Mg 21: V. Ak 194. X. XL 45.

47. Kp I ml. Vol. XIII p. JJ4.

4h. NO R5oll916; I J/i ol 190© : etc
49. F.p. Ind. Vol. XIII. p 188.

50 BJoch. Ann. kep AS K. 1903*4 Klecb'a list $1 H!»i*a M*U. Darvfan*. raVa
44-51

138 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

'chief officer of the police 'a high, probably judicial officer \ ? *
It refers etymologically to a judicial and military title as D»nd*
means an army or rod of punish men t. M The only technical
sense of Darujanayaka, is given as Commander, S6o*ni in
the Jaina Lexicon. 54 The synooym of the term Daty^anSyaka
is used in the sense of 'general'. 55 The Pariyasadda mah*-
nnavo gives for the term the alternative meaning Sen&pati
and S$otni. Hence it is almost clear that MahSclandai;&yaka
means a commander-in-chief. Balidhikritst,* DapdanRynka, 57
MahSpraaipHadaji^anayak* are the main designations of the
generals. The distinctive differences between each one of the
offices, if any, are not discernible in the present state of our
knowledge.

In ancient days the country was divided into many quarters,
each one representing a class of people, pursuing a particular
vocation in life, and having their own mode? of existence. The
following were some among them, as can be gathered from Litera-
ture, and epigraphs. Knttartfn * AnthnnaraSn » Mu«igai4dri .»
KammanariSri,*' Pupaichchdn « Parattaiyartfri* 1 Purachchen *

31. Marshall: Ann. Rep A S.R. 1911*12 p. 34: Itad 1914-J5 p. M2
52. F.p lad. Vol. XVI.

55. Petersbnrg Dtctiooary.

54. Ahhidanachint T ra*ni II. 9 and Ka)p*drufc<‘*. I. 6. v. 17

55. Kiroandaka's Nltnara XVII. p. 49

56. Fp. Ind Vol. XIII. p. 334.

57. PanrUn ayaka occurs also m Ceylon inscription* fcp. Z$v. Vol. I. p. 47

56. Pemngadai: p iOZ : 75t.

59. ibid, p 195; 537

60. Ibid. I. 43. 1. 2CO.

6t S. I. I. II. p. 431. 82192 IJachchen. quarter of Ceylonese emigrant* .
Tln4«cbch*n different from Pagaichchiri Ibid ; and Piif&rachc tn-ri /6iVi
P 46.

62. Ibid

63. Maduraik : 1. 329.

6« Pal^nap. p 301 : Peraiif. p. 573.

THE ANCIENT SOUTH INDUS ARMY (SENAI) 139

Mkivilaitlart&ri,* 5 A<l»n>aichcheri, w liJaicbchGri, 17 TaJichcMri.*
Takuchchon .•* YavaoariSci,™ etc. Aft id seen fiom the above list
every group had its own tcri or quarter. So also the army or Sinai
had it* own quarter or iiri in the country. It was called Sinai-
chchin at Tniutuhchiri. 71 This quarter is found mentioned in
inscriptions and literature, and was also called Sendmugain, 3 *
paiUichclieri, n l^»xappnilfuvuju. 74 Blit the term Pudaivnlu is,
genetally taken to denote encampment. This quarter was the
permanent residence of the Sen&pad, the army and others that
were connected with them and was generally frequented by the
king who also used to stay in the iiri for pretty long periods. 75
Tltc whole atmosphere was filled with the sounds of the military
men, then elephants, horses aocl chariots etc. The residence of
the S&iftpati in the iiri was situated in a place surrounded on all
sides by natural scenery. 36 On the banks of a running stream,
beside the great ghat which was full with green foliage and thick
shades, tie dwelt hi a palatial building full of all architectural
and sculptural work, and which towered high as if reaching the
skies. Whetl tlierc was no war the SC*nft|Kiti and Ins warriors used

63 Mudumtk l. 32$.

66. JlraV 288.

67. ibid 42^2 MaUi. 1.431.

68. Quarter near the temple A R. for 1926. p. 67.

09. „ gate * village. p. W.

70. Peruhg. p. 340. PuramadirMn. p. 573 : PujanjSri : $dap. pp J32f

71. Pining I, 41. 1.203. I, 37. I 262. It. 8 1. 5) Ed. JnH XXII. p, l42f.

Tlie particular xtreuts in which they lived *ere nHo called after them
Cf. Anmvtttkatleru. Vdligalteru. Other quarter* tike AbhimijiablilWha-
ratterimla vclam may alto he mini!.

72. The St'otmouaxn was considered with great boeitmr Cf. Silap. 23. I. ml

Stfuamugam : S. I. I. II. Pt. III. No. 66 p. 269. 1. 247. No. SI of 1927-8.
nod A.K. for 1927.$. p. 53. Kul6min»F»joUn*uu. p. 217. The uord «ai
al>o used to denote a prime division of the arrnv.

73. |Vr ung 111 3. 1.49.

74. I but . p. 334.

73. /W. II. 8. I. 38.9
*6. Ibut. 111. 3. I. 391.

140 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE MYTHIC SOCIETY

to spend their time in merriment and joy. 77 The military quarter
TAnaichcbSci, was filled with many huts in which the soldiers
lived. They were called P*J»kko«il ” Tl§aikkottil,” and Pad*.-
kkalftkkoftil.* The quarter was occupied by Mai&var, Hasti-
kftiar 81 MKchchas, the commissariat department, persons
belonging to Mu|(igai, workmen of the Kammavllaya* and the
Vrittik&ras.* 3 The last of these were military soldiers who received
Jivitas and gifts of royal favour for their living. They were to
fight when there was war. They were like unto the mercenary
troops. In inscriptions another group is mentioned by the name
VSlaikkAras. The meaning of the term has been variously guessed
and great confusion lias been made by equating it with P(I\Skii-
klcaras, a term which occurs in literature. 84 Hut there is no
doubt that they were warriors 85 who usually distinguished them-
selves by tying round their left ankles a Todar. Thi* practice
was also frequent among the MagavAS of Tamil works. . The

77. Mfcduruk. 1. 225f.

QmQiiuQuHuijt Amp.*#

Q*«ai^Q*i 9p*p *iujto

fimaQajitS •fluu

i*mp

j,ipm>'~rppaQ

3>jpu2uiAi&

stm&tptiiVAp uamaamiD uQ<tip
o»se0 Jpffipp e/KcpsupioSt—p

Ou0ii umt—'Kl^A

Sec alto Tinivil*i>4iJ»rpur5fiift. Sec ton 59 vv. 1 3-ltS.

78. Peeing. 1.0. I. 199

70 24. 1152

50. Ibid. p.678.

51. Ibid. L 9. I 5. Ha&tikftfea and Vlrakdea were head* of the eiepbarury

and cavalry

82. Ibid. 1.43. 1.100-201.

8J. Ibid. 111. 19 1.57.

84. * Explct nation of Corlmin Word * atturtng in Tamil LiUroturt 0 by
T. A. C Kao.

8J. Tbii is aHo clear from the Bel Ur inacrtpuon. No. 112* tS*"lUr Tw.
Hanu Dietriet.

THE ANCIENT SOUTH INDIAN ARMY (SINAI) 141

Velft’M®**** were armed* men of greiu valour. *Il»eir help was
c0 l sted when time (vefiii) or circumstance demanded. The
Max ivats and Others were hardy Tamil soldiers and to that race,
loyalty was the ‘be all and end air of their life.® \«|aikktras
also mentioned in the Ceylonese chronicle Mah&v.nuia. They
formed the strongest portions of the Singhalese army. They
are mentioned in the inscriptions of K3jaraj.i. and others. They
were famous for their martial qualities. They went to Ceylon
accompanying the merchant guilds which frequently \isited that
island. They obtained many (ivilus. protections, etc. fiom the
kings of that island, and became an important factor in the
Singhalese army. Once Vijayalrthu the Ling of Ce\ Ion intended to
invade India, and for that he began to gather Ins army. Hut with
a high sense of patriotism the Nglaikkira ttoof*, refused to immie
then motherland and scotched up an internal rebellion. Seeing
tins and uiiderstantng the intention of his trouts which formed the
strength of Ins force, the king Ivad to abandon his intended invasion
of ludia.** Yolaikkaras figured in many capacities in that kingdom.
They protected the great lludd’nist \ ih«r.ts % and their strength and
valour was fell everywhere. Lot III priiKCS and clncfs of that
country, when they attempted to gam the tlirmte for llieimelve*
had by many means to peiMtude tlie*4f troops to jom then sales
for, if thev were not peisuaded success in any of their attempt-*
was well-nigh impossible. In some records these are called
MuQxitkat-M&M*Mi and Mun^ukai*Tiiu\C*laikk&rai 19 . There weie
many divisions among these \<*tuiklc&m* like. \ elangai,
Id.i ig.ai. Sirudanam, t'erudaiutni, l*aj|iga|iku»iun, Vaijugat*,

$6 Compare the exprmion ' Vi(*iilkuntr found in a

SrirAOtiam inscription.

17. Head* ui rcgimenis, in live period ol K« lotting* til and Kujar.SjA lit.
made many compact* among and they n*ed io make strange

row* which are recorded m the in sen pi Kina. Cl. Slo'OJ 435. 4 to of 1913.
•$. C. ) S. Vol. II. Pt. UI p. lG2f. Many references ate found in the
history of Cerlon ro the fart that live kings of that .stand often resorted
to the mainland for contingents of armies.

89. S. I 1. Vol. IV. No. 139$.

90. Vadugars were perhaps immigrants from the Telugu country and the

hill*. See also Sekkdar a stanza in Murnnftyaohr-purAnarn ia which
occurs •* POr sadugak-Karunadar oaortan .

142 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE M YTHIC SOCIETY

Mnla)yi]a>. n etc. Sirudanam and Perudanam were among the title*
which the warriors received as marks of royal recognition of ihr <
valour and capacity. They were also called Sirudanaitu Vad.igakku
valar, Valaugai VglaikkRiar. The Vilaikldra* figure pronnoentlj „
the Iroops of Kii)ar»ja and KSjondtacOla. MOi.nukai VolaikkR.,*
very probably consisted of the Valahgai VSaikkaras," the I^anp .»
Vilaikkfiras 10 and those that did not belong to both of these, b-.:t
were recruited from among the Vadugar, Malayftfar nationality >.
and the ValaHjiyars*. In S. I. I. VoL II. p. 9f. the following regi-
ments are mentioned.

1. Peruiidanattu AnaiyatkaJ

2. • P»T*ditai«h-«erinda VilhgaJ

3. UttamaiOh-terinda Villigal A^JalikanuJar

4 Kiffanli»Oli*(e(inda uda-nilai Kudiraichchtivaga;

5. MummadniOla-teriiida YsoaippAgar

6. VlrniOUaliukkar

7. I '.i ran taka kotifi&l.ar

8. Mummai}iiO|a-teriiida parivBratifir

9. Kcral4ntaka terinda-pariv&rattftr

10 . MtllaparivRia-vittfliu alias janan&tha-terinda pativftratiar

11. Singa}Sntaka-ierioda parivStattar

12. Sirudanattu Vatjugakka valar

13. Valahgai PalampaiJaigal.Ur

14. Perundanattu Valahgai Velaikkftrappadaigal

15. Sirudanattu Valahgai Velaikkarappadaigal

91. M»l*l>H»r were telllen. Irom the MtUUtr. When the people ot

Koliaiia rebelled »g»lr.n ParR'iraran HRhu I ol Ceylon, llie KSrnlu took
to the tide ol the Rdtmna people. Mv. Cb. LXXIV.

92. Valahgai VJlaltkftrai are oenuoned In Myt. Arch. Kep. 1020. p. 31 and

in ihe Smaller l-eiden plate* Kp. Ind, Vol. XXII. p. 2SI. it it Mated
that ihe copper plaie edict »at written by Nigarihso!*? MwlburttmeVajj,
one of ihe VilianiObharana leXimla- Valahgai ViUikkleat ol Utkk&di.
Hit tigntture la alto attetted In No. 9 ol 1910. a certain Oisaya
Navaka figure! at the Commander Sinapaii ol Vita Vollala* Valahgai
fora.

93. It ia howe.er remarkable that tbit section doe* not Ind any separate

mention

9* KsranUara Ten llahgai VaUSglyar U.. KaruDRkata Vlrar VnUtjiyarr
ol Sooth Ceylon. A K. lor 1923 p. 106.

THE ASCIfiNt SOUTH INDIAN ARMY IsRNAI) 143

16.

.VuuiyosOia-terinda ValaDgai

Vti&ikkftrai

17.

AntUiik.il uika-lerinda „

M

18.

llaiymaja inrinda „

• •

19.

Cliiiiuliiii|iarSkrama-ieriDda M

•I

20.

Kprtliiy.i-KhEmapi ierinda

H

21.

Mtlri.n tl.t -vmftbliarana „

II

22.

Nillav in© la-terindu „

ll

23.

Hdjikatiiltlrava-lciiDda „

II

24.

Kij;tiilja-i«rinila „

H

25.

lvijnvinOda«terii)da „

M

26.

k.iit.tuHikltabhlma-ierinda . „

••

27.

\ kr.tniitl.trana-iennda

*•

28.

Kth ulam.vxavfUal Turumeykftppalar

29.

.XlUSk^.l^e'e^ai „

30.

Puritan* Meyk^ppAjar 56

95. Inscription* (i'in Kitappavvr in tbe Tionevelly district mention a
certain ciau .if men called who sc commander*

D.in'IaiiUfiiK-iiiii’idytiir make c« (tain gifts lo the two temples of tl>e
pi. ice. Tli- l— IB Dandaniyakam suggests that they most have been
a million li.vlv and tbis conclusion is supported by a record (395 of
1917) dated m tbe re.go of Majavarroa" Vikrnnu Patwlya. in which the
miter inline ol ibis body is given as JVnnavef ApalluJuvigal meaning
*llie liel|iii - iii the Paodya king in times of distress ’. which may be
said to roc respond to the kings own regiment of tbe preseot day.
These are alvj tnenuoDed in 396 of 1917. MtySaflpur most have also
berm another name of such a claw of military regiments. These
bodies arc perhaps similar lo the community called PatfolSkaMoiiTr.
I’trn M/nw/iiijvm of other inscriptions. The observations of the
Veoetinn traveller Marco Polo deserve to be noted. He tiny* that
there are about the king a number of Baron, who attend upon him.

‘ These r.Je with him. and keep always near him, and have great
authority in the kingdom. They are called the King s Trusly Lieges.
And yin mu.t know that when the king dies, and they pm him on the
fire to huro him, theee Lieges cast themselves into the fire round
about Ins body, and suffer themselves to be bnrot along with him.
l or tltcy say they have been his comrades in this world, and that they
ought also tn keep him company ‘In the other world’. Set Elliot At
Uoviou i The History of India a* told by its own Historians, Vol. III.
Tho description* suit well the inscriptions] references. MeykSppOlar
of South Indian inscriptions may . be equated to tbe UtiSaffar,
V'.i J.iruur. .'>>'«i J V'lniJ and Hambti Srnrvi of the Ceylon epigraphs,
np. Zey. Vol. I. p, 34

144 QUARYt'RLY JOURNAL OP THE MYTHIC SOCIETY
31. Palvagai Palampaijaigal'ltr*

Tlkot these regiments® were really a strong element in the
armies of the great Cola kings is borne out by many inscriptions
which speak of them. After some time these troops, either by
having left the vocation of wai or because of the gradual lapse
of royal favour which meant absence of Vrittis and Jlvitas, they
had to eke out their livelihood by the pursuit of callings other
than military. These classes" became separated into different
castes pursuing different vocations in life. Nowadays we find
castes like Sdnlpati or Paijaiytchchi generally in the South Arcot,
Trichy, Salem, Tanjoreand other Districts. The word Padaiygchchi
is the direct translation of the Sanskrit Sontpati. Having left the
vocation of war these Patjaiyfchchis began life as agriculturists
by tilling the soil and living on the produce of the land. These
came to be called in later days as Aiaitivantj (i.e. Padaiy*cbchi).
Vapijiya Ksatriya*. and GautjiJas. Eighteen of the musicians of
the Rijarajoivara temple originally belonged to one or qther of
the thirty-ooc regiments noted above, and not less than twelve were
from the VBlaikkSra troops.** Some of these regiments were in the
charge of the management of the minor shrines of the temple and
they had to provide for the requirement* of those shrines. Olliers
took money from the temple on interest which was payable in cash,
for variou s purposes the nature of which is not known. These

96. Another inscription inform a new regiment celled Annktabhimarpade.

»nd mate* that a certain Vitankan -a. the commander of ilie same
No. 94 of 1932/3 A regiment called AbhimUnablitisan* -tcrind*
Kai It Volar is referred to in No. 4|7 of 5.1.1. Vol. V Three’ i-rgimeot,
vrhich went by the earner Parihivaiukbara-tcnnda-Kaikkolar, Gandera-
dilta-terinda-Kaikkd|ar and I‘oramakatetioda-K»ikko[ar.aie also known
from a record of KSjur.dra-Cola I. No. 120 of 1930-31.

97. Regiments of Soldiers with coat of mail or armour are mentioned as

Antholakattalor. 8.1.1. Vol. H. p. 98. Cf. l-eriiflg : 1. 48.1. 243.

94. The Idantsi and VaUogai came to be divided Into 94 lubeectl in each
and there communities had <hej own reprerentationi. See No. 439
of 1912 ; No. 34 of 1913 etc. The Simdanam and the Pcrudaoam
had their own representatives called StnuUnalt*pp*ntma£an and
PtrutuianaUuppavimata n respectively, S.l I. It. p. 96 and No 614
Of 1912.

99. No. 627 of 1909.

THE ANCIENT SOUTH INDIAN ARMY (S&NAI) 145

fact- show that much interest was created in them in temple affairs.
Thus they performed other tasks than military, — in times of peace
soli unemployment in the battlefield, and as warfare was not a
pc. iitdical occurrence. RftjarBja's military chiefs were learned men
ami some of them were judges, arbitrators and the like. 1 ® Not
only this, in general, many military men were alike famed in war
ami civil affairs. Sokl;i|5r, one of the greatest poets of the Tamil
land, '\;n* a great Stin&pati by profession. Mtitfamirya, the great
IowmI Sonapati of Vtra ChOda tvas a learned man skilled in
sciences and weapon*.

(7*o b* conclud'd)

100 . Noi 04 A: of the umc year's collection.

THIS SHRINK OF WISDOM

A Ql'AUTKIU.Y HBVIBW

DEVOTED TO

SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION & MYSTICISM.
Annuo) Subscription 5f- po.r free. Single cop j 1)3- eac ft.

BRYNBUGEILYDD,

Harlech. N. Wd«.

RUDRA IN THE RGVEDA

By G. Sitaramiah, m.a.

RUDRA occupies a prominent place in the VMic pantheon.
Although he is invoked in three hymns only in the RgvMa, he is by
no means a subordinate divinity because he combines in himself the
demoniac as well as angelic features and he is the only god Who is
feared and held in awe by the VMic bards.

The etymological sense of ' Rudra’ is uncertain. According
to the usual derivation from the root ' rud the term ‘ Ktidra ' means
' Howler But this meaning does not take us far in understanding
the RgvMic conception of the god.

VMic scholars hold that gods in the RgvSda are nothing f
they are not personifications of natural phenomena and they iiave
explained the physical basis of the conception of Rudra in several
ways. V. G. Rele, author of "The Mysterious Kundalini "
maintains, in explaining the biological form of ' Rudra that he ir.
seen as " a thick dense protuberance, the Pons Varolli, on the
ccrebro- spinal nervous system, just above the medulla oblongata,
the upper terminal eud of the spmal chord ",

Some scholars regard the conception of ' Rudra ' as the VMic
anticipation of the conception of Siva of later- days. Professor
Macdonel), however, opines that the pehnomenon underlying
Rudra’s nature is the storm, not pure and simple, but in its
baleful aspect seen in the desttuctive agency of lightning.

Being a Deva, Rudra possesses the common attributes of all
members of the celestial clan. Thus he is beautiful, wears orna-
ments. is very powerful and brilliant and upholds the cosmic
order 4 Rta '.

Let us now turn our attention to some of the picturesque
epithets applied to Rudra in the RgvMa. In the first place, lie is
regarded as the father of the ‘ Maruts '—the storm gods. He is

147

RUDRA IN THR RGVROA

,udii> (liaiilnu) and fair-lipped (Su-8iprah) and wears a glorious
neck'acr N ska). He is mightiest of the mighty (Tavas&m
Ifcttwaniab) and tlierefore unassailable. The most striking idea is
that Knclt.i i* reg;uded as the best of all that is born (Gre^ho
jiiasjn *• % ;«*i ). He wields the thunderbolt (vajra bahu) His
bunk are n eiciful. He is full of remedies for the afflicted as he is
regarded :i the physician of physicians. Young and unaging he is
lent Ui m of the world. He is also destructive like a terrible
beaM. I !«• IS spoken of as a bull and a boar. He is also bountiful
A i\,: .us|s*. us, is easily invoked and is a giver of much health and
wr-diti.

Hu - n* observe that Rudra is eulogised in superlatives. The
;U- : • tv ii His goodwill is seeu in almost all the stanzas of the

* Uni... SuUa\ The poets implore him to slacken his bow and to
be*tnw ii|um them the most salutary medicines which will enable
t »i:u 10 Inc for a hundred winters.

Huvitil i being the poetic response of the primitive Aryan* to
the niy.-ii'rx that is implicit in life, such occurrences as terrible
huh. iiim and peals of thunder were attributed to a divinity,
Riuirtt Hence being regarded ah malevolent he is highly
in order that he may uot discharge his lightning shaft
again •: tiitmi.

Ku.lm is one of the few gods who have special distinguishing
clianu irriM cs. Although he possesses the divine qualities of
brilliant e, knowledge, power, beauty and immortality, lie does
not jv.sw them in the same degree as the other gods possess them.
1 ’m^ • ihr most beautiful, and Agni is the mo9t knowing of the
gods; Uialra like Indra is the most powerful of all the gods.

Thu* we see in Rudra. a divinity which is not wholly
malevolent. The sinful arc punished and the prayers of the
other n air ustly rewarded. The invocations with reference to
Rudra arc all humble, honestly made and they really come from the
heart. 1 1 r. la h Su ta$J*m)